motivation
Motive – a need or a want that causes us to act. Motivation directs and maintains goal
direct behavior
Instinct theory – physical and mental instincts such as curiosity and fearfulness which
cause us to act. Instincts are inherited, automatic, species-specific behaviors.
Drive Reduction theory – focuses on internal states of tension, such as hunger and thirst
that motivate us to pursue actions which reduce the tension and bring us back to
homeostasis. A need is a motivated stated caused by a physiological deficit. A Drive is
a state of psychological tension, induced by a need, which motivates us.
Incentive theory – beyond the primary motives of food and drive, and sex which push us
toward a goal, secondary motives or external stimuli such as money, approval and grades
regulate and pull us toward a goal.
Arousal theory – each of us has an optimal level of arousal necessary to perform tasks
which varies with the person and the activity. Arousal is the level of alertness,
wakefulness and activation caused by activity in the central nervous system.
Yerkes-Dodson law – easy tasks require moderately high arousal, difficult tasks
moderately low arousal is optimal; for most average tasks, moderate level of arousal is
optimal.
Physiological motives are primary motives such as hunger, thirst, pain, and sex
influenced by biologic factors, environmental factors, and learned preferences and habits.
Set point – a preset natural body weight, determined by the number of fat cells in our
body.
Thirst – increases with mouth dryness; shrinking of cells from loss of water and low
blood volume that stimulate the lateral hypothalamus; and sight and smell of desired
fluids.
Hunger – increases with stomach contractions; low blood sugar, high insulin levels that
stimulate the lateral hypothalamus, environmental factors such as the sight and smell of
desired foods, and stress. Stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus stops eating
behavior.
Social motives are learned needs such as the need for achievement and the need for
affiliation.
Need for achievement – desire to meet some internalized standard of excellence, related
to productivity and success. People with a high need for achievement choose moderately
challenging tasks to satisfy their need.
Affiliation motive – the need to be with others; is aroused when people feel threatened,
anxious or celebratory.
Attribution theory – a study of our causal explanations of behavior. We attribute
behavior to the individual’s disposition or to the situation.
Intrinsic motivation – a desire to perform an activity for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation – a desire to perform an activity to obtain a reward such as money,
applause, or attention.
Overjustification effect – where promising a reward for doing something we already
like to do results in us seeing the reward as the motivation for performing the task. When
the reward is taken away, the behavior tends to disappear.
Motivational conflict: you are torn between opposing motives that prevent you from reaching a goal.
Approach-Approach Conflict:
A conflict involving a choice between two positive options, where only one can be chosen.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict:
A conflict involving a choice between two negative options, where one must be chosen.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
A conflict where a single option has both positive and negative consequences.
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
A conflict involving a choice between two or more options, each with multiple positive and negative consequences.
Achievement Motivation:
Definition: The desire to master complex tasks and reach personal goals by acquiring knowledge or skills.
Example: A student with high achievement motivation chooses a moderately challenging math problem to feel a sense of accomplishment.
Affiliation:
Definition: The need to be with others, often triggered by feelings of threat, anxiety, or a desire to celebrate.
Example: After receiving good news, a person calls their friends to celebrate together.
Arousal Theory:
Definition: The theory that people seek an optimal level of arousal, which affects their performance on tasks. According to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, moderate arousal is best for most activities.
Example: A student performs well on a test when they are slightly nervous but not overwhelmed.
Intrinsic Motivation:
Definition: Performing an activity for its own sake, driven by internal satisfaction or enjoyment.
Example: An artist paints because they find joy in expressing their creativity.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Definition: Performing an activity to earn external rewards or avoid punishments.
Example: A student studies hard to receive a scholarship.
Management Theory - Theory X:
Definition: The belief that employees are inherently lazy and need external rewards or punishments to work effectively.
Example: A manager offers bonuses to employees for reaching sales targets.
Management Theory - Theory Y:
Definition: The belief that employees are internally motivated to work well and should be encouraged through supportive policies.
Example: A manager allows employees to work on projects they are passionate about, believing it will increase productivity.
Attribution Theory:
Definition: The theory that people explain behavior by attributing it to either internal factors (personality) or external factors (situation).
Example: If a coworker misses a deadline, someone might assume they are lazy (internal) or that they had a family emergency (external).
Hunger:
Definition: The physiological and psychological desire for food.
Example: Feeling hungry when the stomach is empty and blood glucose levels drop.
Satiety:
Definition: The feeling of fullness that signals the end of eating.
Example: Finishing a meal and no longer feeling the urge to eat.
Hypothalamus:
Definition: The brain region regulating hunger and satiety through the lateral hypothalamus ("on" switch) and ventromedial hypothalamus ("off" switch).
Example: A rat overeating when its lateral hypothalamus is stimulated.
Glucose:
Definition: A sugar that provides energy to cells, influencing hunger.
Example: Feeling hungry when glucose levels drop.
Insulin:
Definition: A hormone secreted by the pancreas to regulate blood sugar by promoting glucose storage.
Example: After eating a sugary snack, insulin is released to store excess glucose.
Glucagon:
Definition: A hormone that increases blood sugar by converting stored glycogen into glucose.
Example: During fasting, glucagon helps maintain blood sugar levels.
Leptin:
Definition: A hormone released by fat cells to signal satiety.
Example: Leptin levels rise after a large meal, reducing hunger.
Ghrelin:
Definition: A hormone secreted by an empty stomach to stimulate hunger.
Example: Ghrelin levels spike before lunchtime, increasing appetite.
PPY (Peptide YY):
Definition: A hormone from the digestive tract that signals fullness to the brain.
Example: After a meal, PPY reduces hunger.
Orexin:
Definition: A hormone produced by the hypothalamus that increases hunger.
Example: A surge in orexin may cause sudden cravings.
Type 1 Diabetes:
Definition: A condition where the pancreas produces little or no insulin, leading to high blood sugar.
Example: A child with Type 1 diabetes may lose weight despite eating often.
Type 2 Diabetes:
Definition: A condition where the body resists insulin, causing glucose buildup and increased hunger.
Example: An adult with Type 2 diabetes may gain weight due to excess insulin production.
Thirst:
Definition: The physiological desire for water, triggered by dehydration or low blood volume.
Example: Feeling thirsty after exercising.
Osmoreceptors:
Definition: Cells that detect cellular dehydration and signal thirst.
Example: When dehydrated, osmoreceptors stimulate thirst to restore fluid balance.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
Definition: A hormone released by the pituitary gland that promotes water retention by reducing urination.
Example: ADH is released during dehydration to conserve water.
Angiotensin:
Definition: A hormone that increases thirst by stimulating receptors in the hypothalamus.
Example: After losing fluids, angiotensin triggers the urge to drink.
Obesity:
Definition: Excessive accumulation of body fat due to overeating or lack of physical activity.
Example: Consuming high-fat foods frequently may lead to obesity.
Fat Cells:
Definition: Cells that store fat for energy, which expand but do not decrease in number after puberty.
Example: A person gaining weight may experience an increase in fat cell size.
Apple Body Shape:
Definition: Fat accumulation around the midsection, often seen in men.
Example: A man with a large belly may have an "apple" shape.
Pear Body Shape:
Definition: Fat accumulation around the hips and thighs, commonly seen in women.
Example: A woman with wider hips may have a "pear" shape.
Instincts and Fixed Action Patterns
Definition: Automatic, stereotypical behaviors performed by all members of a species in response to specific stimuli.
Example: A duckling following its mother after hatching, known as imprinting.
Drive Reduction Theory
Definition: States that behavior is motivated by biological needs that create a drive to restore homeostasis.
Example: Feeling hungry after skipping breakfast and buying a snack to satisfy that hunger.
Primary Drives:
Definition: Biological needs essential for survival.
Example: Thirst, hunger, or the need for warmth.
Secondary Drives:
Definition: Learned drives that satisfy primary needs indirectly.
Example: Earning money to buy food.
Arousal Theory
Definition: Suggests that people seek an optimal level of arousal for peak performance.
Example: A person trying skydiving to satisfy a high need for excitement.
Yerkes-Dodson Law:
Definition: States that moderate arousal leads to the best performance, while very low or very high arousal decreases performance.
Example: A student performs better on a test when slightly nervous, but anxiety can hinder performance if it becomes too intense.
Incentive Theory
Definition: Proposes that behavior is motivated by external rewards or punishments.
Example: Studying hard to get a good grade on the AP Psychology exam.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Definition: A theory that organizes human needs into five levels, suggesting individuals are motivated to fulfill lower-level needs before higher-level needs.
Example: A person may prioritize finding food and shelter before pursuing social relationships or personal growth.
Physiological Needs:
Definition: Basic survival needs like food, water, and sleep.
Example: Eating when hungry.
Safety Needs:
Definition: The need for security, stability, and protection.
Example: Seeking shelter during a storm.
Belongingness and Love Needs:
Definition: The desire for social connection, relationships, and acceptance.
Example: Joining a club to make friends.
Esteem Needs:
Definition: The need for self-respect, achievement, and recognition from others.
Example: Winning an award at work.
Self-Actualization Needs:
Definition: The desire to reach one’s full potential and achieve personal growth.
Example: An artist creating a meaningful painting to express themselves.
Cognitive Needs (Added by Maslow):
Definition: The need to learn, understand, and explore.
Example: A child asking numerous questions to satisfy their curiosity