The Critical Period

The session aims to wrap up conversations about issues during the working period of the Articles of Confederation and address potential assignments thereafter.

An attempt to amend the system was initiated due to repeated failures in achieving unanimous votes.
- Votes were sometimes not unanimous, resulting in failures like the three-fourths votes.
- Each state received one vote, highlighting systemic issues within the framework.

Proposal by Morris suggested a military coup termed the Newburgh conspiracy as a reflection of the ineffectiveness of the governmental system.
- This was indicative of desperate circumstances, similar to situations in other nations where ineffective governance leads to military takeovers.

The post-war era revealed significant economic problems within the American states.

Foreign nations saw an opportunity to retaliate against the U.S., particularly Great Britain, who expressed resentment towards American independence.
- Negative actions from Britain include maintaining troops in forts designed to constrain American growth in the Ohio River Valley, acquired after the peace treaty.
- Britain utilized Native American tribes to incite attacks on American settlers, thereby keeping the new nation in a vulnerable position.
- Allegations suggested Britain was supplying Native Americans with alcohol and paying off American scouts to bolster these insurgencies.

American settlers faced considerable danger as Britain sought to limit U.S. expansion to maintain control over the newly acquired territory.
The U.S. federal government, under the Articles of Confederation, was ineffective in managing these foreign affairs due to a lack of unanimous decision-making in Congress.

Spain, controlling Louisiana, obstructed U.S. access to the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans, critiquing the U.S. for overthrowing monarchal rule.
This denial of access was detrimental to the economic prospects and movement of Americans beyond the Appalachian Mountains, as waterways were their main mode of transport due to scarce infrastructure.

The Articles of Confederation led to significant state grievances and conflicts due to the concentrated power resting within the states, rather than at the federal level.

An increase in less educated politicians arose; individuals were elected who catered to popular opinion rather than sound policy.
- The tendency was for politicians to act based on public sentiment, which was often misguided, especially under economic strife that awaited resolution.

States resorted to printing paper money to alleviate the economic struggles as many citizens were unable to pay debts accrued from the war.
- The backing of paper money with specie meant that the value diluted as more notes were pumped into circulation.
- Rhode Island suffered the worst inflation, with banks failing and citizens reliant on essentially worthless currency.
- The practice of passing state laws permitting foreclosures prompted significant backlash, further depicting the tension between borrowers and lenders even as loans were taken under contracts.

This rebellion initiated by Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran, conveyed the desperation of farmers during this crisis period.
- The rebellion represented a violent outcry against the government’s inability to provide relief as hoped by the soldiers who fought for independence.
- Conflicts ensued when Shays and supporters attempted to shut down courthouses to prevent foreclosures on their properties.
- The state militia's inability to quell the rebellion without outside federal assistance furthers highlights the weaknesses of the current government structure housed under the Articles of Confederation.

Following the events of Shays' Rebellion in 1787, delegates from all 13 states convened with the original intent to revise the Articles of Confederation.
- The necessity for a new government system was recognized, as existing structures were deemed ineffective.

Congress realized there was an inherent need for a more powerful national government rather than states enjoying primarily sovereign rule.
- Arguably, this meeting saw participation from the most qualified individuals like George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and James Madison, marking an important deliberation period towards framing the new Constitution.

Diverse political philosophies showcased, particularly Madison’s Virginia Plan favoring population-based representation which was countered by the New Jersey Plan maintaining equal representation for all states regardless of size.
- The tensions led to the Great Compromise, allowing for a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate (equal representation) and the House of Representatives (population-based representation).

This compromise addressed contentious issues regarding slavery whereby three out of five slaves were counted for both tax and representation purposes, reflecting the challenges of reconciling divergent regional interests.

The ratified Constitution would incorporate a federal system distributing powers between the national and state levels, a significant departure from previous governmental structures.
Enumerated powers were specified allowing for the taxation, regulation of commerce, and raising armies, whereas other provisions left the interpretation to a degree with the elastic clause or necessary and proper clause allowing flexibility.

The political debate emerged emphasizing checks and balances, with representation tied to genuine population metrics rather than archaic systems.
- The adoption process would have to be carefully executed, establishing new measures on how to garner support for this new governing system while maintaining stability in the states.

Federalists sought to ratify the Constitution, advocating for a stronger national government, outlining benefits through the Federalist Papers authored by prominent figures including Hamilton, Madison, and Jay.
- Anti-Federalists countered with concerns that the new government established too much central authority lacking explicit protections for individual rights.
- Notably, the absence of a Bill of Rights raised alarms among Anti-Federalists advocating for a prototype to safeguard liberties.

Ratification conventions were held across states to put forward votes on the new Constitution, needing nine out of thirteen endorsements to enact.
- The contentious atmosphere showcased debates across state lines, often resulting in narrow margins favoring the Constitution yet burgeoning skepticism remained concerning expanded central powers.

A Bill of Rights was eventually promised, addressing critical weaknesses in civil liberties despite the original absence of any formal declaration.
Furthermore, ongoing discussions highlighted unanswered questions about state sovereignty and slavery, foretelling future conflict.

Students were assigned a writing task focusing on reflective observations regarding the efficacy of the Articles of Confederation or connecting viewpoints between delegates advocating for different governmental structures.