Cold War and Apartheid Movement Review

CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

• The "Big Three" (US, UK, USSR) met to plan the post-war landscape of Europe.

• Primary decisions made included:

  • Division of Germany into distinct zones of control.

  • Promise of free elections in Eastern European countries.

• Relations between the USSR and the USA were tense, predominantly over the political future of Poland.

Potsdam Conference (July–August 1945)

• Attended by Allied leaders including Truman, who was increasingly suspicious of the USSR.

• Disagreements arose over issues such as:

  • Conducting free elections in Eastern Europe.

  • Reparations owed by Germany.

• Increasing tensions indicated early fractures in post-war relations, setting a tone for the Cold War.

Atomic Diplomacy

• The United States successfully developed and tested an atomic bomb in 1945.

• Attempted to leverage its nuclear capability to pressure the USSR into compliance.

• Resulted in heightened distrust between the two superpowers, sparking an arms race in which both nations sought to build up their nuclear arsenals.

Iron Curtain

• A term popularized by Winston Churchill in a 1946 speech.

• Described the division in Europe created by Soviet influence, which separated Eastern and Western blocs ideologically.

• The metaphor signified the start of a period of geopolitical tensions and conflicts.

Salami Tactics + Soviet Expansion

• The USSR expanded its influence through a strategy of gradual control, referred to as “salami tactics.”

• This involved incrementally taking control of Eastern Europe by:

  • Installing communist governments in various satellite states.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

• Formulated as a US policy aimed at the containment of communism.

• Stipulated US support for nations resisting communist forces, particularly in Greece and Turkey.

Marshall Plan (1948)

• An initiative for US economic aid aimed at rebuilding European economies post-World War II.

• Aimed to prevent the spread of communism, which was often seen as rooted in poverty.

• The USSR vehemently opposed the plan, banning Eastern Bloc countries from accepting aid.

COLD WAR TENSIONS

Berlin Blockade/Airlift (1948–1949)

• The USSR instigated a blockade on all supply routes to West Berlin.

• In response, Western Allies initiated an airlift, supplying the city by air.

• The USSR eventually backed down from the blockade after several months.

Korean War (1950–1953)

• The conflict was fought between the communist North Koreans (supported by the USSR and China) versus the democratic South Koreans (supported by the USA and UN forces).

• This marked the first "hot war" of the Cold War era, ending with Korea remaining divided at the 38th parallel.

Arms Race

• A significant component of Cold War tensions involved the nuclear arms race between the USA and the USSR.

• Both nations amassed large arsenals of atomic and later thermonuclear weapons.

• The doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) emerged, suggesting that both sides possessed enough power to destroy each other, which caused a deterrent against direct conflict.

Berlin Wall (1961)

• Constructed by East Germany to halt the mass defections of its citizens to West Berlin.

• The wall became a powerful symbol of Cold War division and the ideological struggle between East and West.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

• A 13-day confrontation between the USA and the USSR over Soviet missile deployment in Cuba, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.

• Ultimately, the USSR withdrew its missiles in exchange for a US pledge not to invade Cuba.

Vietnam War (US Involvement 1965–1973)

• The US intervened militarily in Vietnam to prevent a communist takeover of the South.

• The conflict resulted in significant casualties and ultimately led to US withdrawal.

• Vietnam was unified under a communist government in 1975 after the fall of Saigon.

Détente (1970s)

• A period marked by the easing of tensions between the superpowers, often associated with arms control negotiations.

• The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) resulted from this climate, establishing limits on certain types of nuclear weapons.

Soviet War in Afghanistan (1979–1989)

• The USSR invaded Afghanistan to support a communist government amidst internal turmoil.

• The US responded by arming Afghan mujahideen fighters who opposed the Soviet presence.

• The costly conflict is viewed as a major factor contributing to the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union.

END OF THE COLD WAR

End of Détente

• Tensions heightened again during the late 1970s due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and renewed arms buildup.

Ronald Reagan's Policies

• Adopted a hard-line stance against the Soviet Union, labeling it an "evil empire."

• Initiated massive increases in US arms spending, straining the Soviet economy and contributing to increased pressure.

Gorbachev’s Reforms

• Introduced significant reforms known as Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring).

• Glasnost aimed to reduce censorship and promote political openness.

• Perestroika sought to modernize the Soviet economy through structural changes.

Soviet Economic Crisis

• The Soviet Union faced severe economic challenges during the 1980s, including shortages in goods, inefficiency within the system, and substantial debt.

• These issues highlighted its inability to compete effectively with the US economy.

Break-up of the USSR (1991)

• The USSR witnessed a dissolution as various republics declared independence, culminating in a loss of control by the Communist Party.

• The Cold War formally ended with the disintegration of the Soviet Union, leading to the emergence of independent states.

ANTI-APARTHEID MOVEMENT

Establishment of Apartheid (1948)

• The National Party, upon gaining power, instituted apartheid, which enforced racial segregation policies.

• South Africa was governed under a system of white minority rule.

Apartheid Policies + Laws

• Notable apartheid laws included:

  • Pass Laws: Controlled movement of non-white population.

  • Group Areas Act: Segregated residential areas by race.

  • Bantu Education Act: Restricted education for black South Africans.

Sharpeville Massacre (1960)

• A peaceful protest led to police opening fire, killing 69 individuals.

• The massacre incited global outrage and led to the African National Congress (ANC) being banned.

Soweto Uprising (1976)

• Students organized protests against the enforced use of Afrikaans in schools.

• The uprising resulted in hundreds of deaths and marked a point of significant mass resistance.

International Pressure

• Apartheid South Africa faced increasing international pressure, including:

  • Economic sanctions and boycotts.

  • Condemnations from the United Nations.

• These pressures ultimately forced the South African government to negotiate.

Features of the Movement

• The anti-apartheid movement included various forms of resistance:

  • Mass protests, strikes, sabotage actions.

• Key organizations involved in the movement included:

  • ANC (African National Congress), PAC (Pan Africanist Congress), labor unions, and student bodies.

Steve Biko

• A major figure in the Black Consciousness Movement, advocating for black empowerment and social justice.

• Died in police custody in 1977, becoming a martyr for the anti-apartheid cause.

Nelson Mandela

• A prominent leader within the ANC who played a critical role in advocating for the overthrow of apartheid.

• Co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), a military wing of the ANC.

• Imprisoned for 27 years, he became an enduring symbol of resistance to oppression.

Frederik de Klerk

• The last president of apartheid-era South Africa.

• Instrumental in dismantling apartheid by legalizing the ANC, releasing Nelson Mandela, and negotiating the transition to a democratic society.

1994 Election

• Marked the first multiracial democratic elections in South Africa.

• Nelson Mandela was elected as the first black president of the country, symbolizing the end of apartheid.

TERRORISM

What is Terrorism?

• Defined as the use of violence to reach specific political objectives.

• Terrorism aims to create fear and influence government policy.

• Often targets civilians rather than military entities.

• Typically associated with non-state actors or groups rather than official state militaries.

Al-Qaeda

• Founded by Osama bin Laden in the late 1980s.

• Operates with a radical Islamist ideology, focusing on the removal of Western influence and the establishment of a global Islamic state.

• Notable tactics used include:

  • Suicide bombings, hijackings, and coordinated large-scale attacks.

• Major attacks attributed to Al-Qaeda include:

  • September 11, 2001 (9/11), 1998 US Embassy bombings, and the attack on the USS Cole.

• The impact of its activities included prompting the US-led War on Terror and the invasion of Afghanistan as a response to its attacks.