Psychology 2e
ITU Openstax Psychology 2e Notes
Psychology 2e Senior Contributing Authors
Rose M. Spielman (Formerly of Quinnipiac University)
William J. Jenkins (Mercer University)
Marilyn D. Lovett (Spelman College)
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Preface
Psychology 2e is an OpenStax resource written to increase student access to high-quality learning materials at little to no cost.
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The first openly licensed college textbook was published in 2012, and the library has since scaled to over 35 books for college and AP® courses used by hundreds of thousands of students.
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Customization
Psychology 2e is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY) license, allowing distribution, remixing, and building upon the content with attribution.
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Art Attribution
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Errata
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Format
The textbook is accessible for free in web view or PDF through openstax.org and at a low cost in print.
Psychology 2e is designed to meet scope and sequence requirements for the single-semester introduction to psychology course.
The book offers a comprehensive treatment of core concepts grounded in both classic studies and current and emerging research.
The text includes coverage of the DSM-5 in examinations of psychological disorders and incorporates discussions that reflect diversity within the discipline and across cultures and communities.
Changes to the Second Edition
Content revisions for clarity, accuracy, and currency.
Over 210 new research references have been added or updated.
Dozens of examples and feature boxes have been changed or added.
Substantial coverage has been added to the research chapter and strategically throughout the textbook whenever key studies are discussed to engage students in stronger critical analysis and inform them about research reproducibility.
Significant additions and revisions were made in the areas of diversity, representation, and inclusion.
The OpenStax team made accessibility improvements throughout the art program in Psychology 2e.
Pedagogical Foundation
Psychology 2e engages students through inquiry, self-reflection, and investigation. Features in the second edition have been carefully updated to remain topical and relevant while deepening students’ relationship to the material. They include the following:
Everyday Connection features tie psychological topics to everyday issues and behaviors that students encounter in their lives and the world.
What Do You Think? features provide research-based information and ask students their views on controversial issues.
Dig Deeper features discuss one specific aspect of a topic in greater depth so students can dig more deeply into the concept.
Connect the Concepts features revisit a concept learned in another chapter, expanding upon it within a different context.
Art, interactives, and assessments that engage:
Link to Learning features direct students to online interactive exercises and animations that add a fuller context to core content and provide an opportunity for application.
Personal Application Questions engage students in topics at a personal level to encourage reflection and promote discussion.
Resources
Student and Instructor Resources
We’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors, including Getting Started Guides, an instructor solution guide, a test bank, and PowerPoint slides. Instructor resources require a verified instructor account, which you can apply for when you log in or create your account on openstax.org. Take advantage of these resources to supplement your OpenStax book.
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Technology partners
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About the Authors
Senior contributing authors
Rose M. Spielman (Content Lead)
William J. Jenkins, Mercer University
Marilyn D. Lovett, Spelman College
Contributing Authors
Mara Aruguete, Lincoln University
Laura Bryant, Eastern Gateway Community College
Barbara Chappell, Walden University
Kathryn Dumper, Bainbridge State College
Arlene Lacombe, Saint Joseph’s University
Julie Lazzara, Paradise Valley Community College
Tammy McClain, West Liberty University
Barbara B. Oswald, Miami University
Marion Perlmutter, University of Michigan
Mark D. Thomas, Albany State University
Reviewers
Patricia G. Adams, Pitt Community College
Daniel Bellack, Trident Technical College
Christopher M. Bloom, Providence College
Jerimy Blowers, Cayuga Community College
Salena Brody, Collin College
David A. Caicedo, Borough of Manhattan Community College, CUNY
Bettina Casad, University of Missouri–St. Louis
Sharon Chacon, Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
James Corpening
Frank Eyetsemitan, Roger Williams University
Tamara Ferguson, Utah State University
Kathleen Flannery, Saint Anselm College
Johnathan Forbey, Ball State University
Laura Gaudet, Chadron State College
William Goggin, University of Southern Mississippi
Jeffery K. Gray, Charleston Southern University
Heather Griffiths, Fayetteville State University
Mark Holder, University of British Columbia
Rita Houge, Des Moines Area Community College
Colette Jacquot, Strayer University
John Johanson, Winona State University
Andrew Johnson, Park University
Shaila Khan, Tougaloo College
Cynthia Kreutzer, Georgia State University Perimeter College at Clarkston Campus
Carol Laman, Houston Community College
Dana C. Leighton, Texas A&M University—Texarkana
Thomas Malloy, Rhode Island College
Jan Mendoza, Golden West College
Christopher Miller, University of Minnesota
Lisa Moeller, Beckfield College
Amy T. Nusbaum, Heritage University
Jody Resko, Queensborough Community College (CUNY)
Hugh Riley, Baylor University
Juan Salinas, University of Texas at Austin
Brittney Schrick, Southern Arkansas University
Phoebe Scotland, College of the Rockies
Christine Selby, Husson University
Sally B. Seraphin, Centre College
Brian Sexton, Kean University
Nancy Simpson, Trident Technical College
Jason M. Smith, Federal Bureau of Prisons – FCC Hazelton
Robert Stennett, University of Georgia
Jennifer Stevenson, Ursinus College
Eric Weiser, Curry College
Jay L. Wenger, Harrisburg Area Community College
Alan Whitehead, Southern Virginia University
Valjean Whitlow, American Public University
Rachel Wu, University of California, Riverside
Alexandra Zelin, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Introduction to Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.
The textbook explores questions about the human brain, its processes, and the connection between internal processes and external behaviors.
What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
Psychologists use the scientific method to acquire knowledge.
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that fits into the context of a scientific theory.
A theory is a broad explanation supported by evidence over time and is the best understanding of the natural world.
Psychological science is empirical, based on measurable data.
Science deals only with matter and energy and cannot arrive at knowledge about values and morality.
The scientific method is a form of empiricism based on observation and experimentation.
Psychology became accepted as its own academic discipline in the late 1800s.
Psychology incorporates aspects of natural and social sciences.
Why Study Psychology?
Students often take psychology courses to help others and learn about themselves.
Psychology satisfies general education requirements and is required for some programs of study.
Psychology is one of the most popular majors on college campuses.
Famous psychology majors include Mark Zuckerberg, Jon Stewart, Natalie Portman, and Wes Craven.
Value of Psychology Education
Psychology students hone critical thinking skills and are trained in the use of the scientific method.
Critical thinking involves the active application of skills to understand and evaluate information.
Psychology students develop better communication skills.
They understand the complex factors that shape behavior, appreciate the interaction of biology, environment, and experiences.
Students learn basic principles that guide how we think and behave and recognize the diversity across individuals and cultural boundaries.
Major Figures in Psychology's History
Wilhelm Wundt and William James are credited as founders of psychology as a science.
Wundt and Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was t he first person referred to as a psychologist.
His book Principles of Physiological Psychology was published in 1873.
Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience.
The goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined.
Wundt used introspection ("internal perception").
He believed in voluntarism and that people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment.
Wundt considered his version experimental introspection and used instruments to measure reaction time.
He wrote Volkerpsychologie in 1904, suggesting that psychology should include the study of culture.
Functionalism
William James, John Dewey, and Charles Sanders Peirce helped establish functional psychology.
They accepted Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
They viewed theory as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics.
Adaptation means that a trait of an organism has a function for survival and reproduction.
James viewed psychology’s purpose as studying the function of behavior.
Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment.
Functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than its individual parts.
Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist and influential figure in psychology.
Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind.
Gaining access to the unconscious was crucial to resolving patient problems.
The unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, examinations of first words, and slips of the tongue.
Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious and early childhood experiences.
Drew Westen argues that criticisms of Freud’s ideas are misplaced.
More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical approach have been empirically demonstrated to be effective.
Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) were German psychologists who immigrated to the United States.
They introduced psychologists in the United States to Gestalt principles.
Gestalt psychology deals with how parts relate to each other as a whole in perception.
Due to factors, principles of Gestalt psychology were less influential in the United States.
Gestalt principles are still very influential today as the human individual became an important foundation in humanistic theory.
Ideas of Gestalt have continued to influence research on sensation and perception.
Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) studied conditioned reflex.
John B. Watson (1878–1958) thought that the study of consciousness was flawed.
Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control.
Behaviorism is the approach of observing and controlling behavior.
A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism.
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was a behaviorist that concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences.
Skinner spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior.
Skinner developed an operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box) for the study of modifying behavior.
Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism
Humanism emerged as it emphasized personal control, intentionality, and predisposition for "good".
Humanism is a perspective emphasizing the potential for good innate to all humans.
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior.
Higher-level needs would begin to motivate behavior.
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) emphasized the potential for good within all people.
Rogers used client-centered therapy.
A therapist needed to display unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy.
Rogers believed that people were capable of dealing with and working through their own issues.
The Cognitive Revolution
New disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging.
These areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry.
This perspective has come to be known as the cognitive revolution.
Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology.
Noam Chomsky (1928–) was very influential in the early days of this movement.
Chomsky believed psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted.
The cognitive revolution helped reestablish lines of communication between European psychologists and their American counterparts.
Psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields, referred to as the cognitive sciences.
Feminist Psychology
The science of psychology has had an impact on human well-being, both positive and negative. Women, members of ethnic minorities, and individuals with sexual orientations other than straight had difficulties entering the field of psychology and therefore influencing its development.
Until the 1960s, the science of psychology was largely a “womanless” psychology (Crawford & Marecek, 1989), meaning that few women were able to practice psychology, so they had little influence on what was studied.
Naomi Weisstein stimulated a feminist revolution in psychology by presenting a critique of psychology as a science. She also specifically criticized male psychologists for constructing the psychology of women entirely out of their own cultural biases and without careful experimental tests to verify any of their characterizations of women.
Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology
Culture impacts individuals, groups, and society. An ongoing issue researchers are trying to correct is that certain populations have been over-studied and the results of these studies have been applied to other populations.
According to Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan, WEIRD societies have been overstudied. WEIRD stands for western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. They found that there are many differences between people in the WEIRD group and people in less industrialized, less urban, and non-Western societies. These differences occur in a variety of areas, including perception, cooperation, and moral reasoning.
Multicultural psychologists develop theories and conduct research with diverse populations, typically within one country.
Cross-cultural psychologists compare populations across countries, such as participants from the United States compared to participants from China.
In 1920, Francis Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the United States. Sumner established a psychology degree program at Howard University, leading to the education of a new generation of African American psychologists (Black, Spence, and Omari, 2004).
Two famous African American researchers and psychologists are Mamie Phipps Clark and her husband, Kenneth Clark. They are best known for their studies conducted on African American children and doll preference, research that was instrumental in the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court desegregation case.
Women in Psychology
In 1894, Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman awarded the doctoral degree in psychology. She wrote The Animal Mind: A Textbook of Comparative Psychology, and it was the standard in the field for over 20 years.
In the mid 1890s, Mary Whiton Calkins completed all requirements toward the PhD in psychology, but Harvard University refused to award her that degree because she was a woman.
Another influential woman, Mary Cover Jones, conducted a study she considered to be a sequel to John B. Watson’s study of Little Albert
Ethnic minority women contributing to the field of psychology include Martha Bernal and Inez Beverly Prosser; their studies were related to education. Bernal, the first Latina to earn her doctoral degree in psychology (1962) conducted much of her research with Mexican American children. Prosser was the first African American woman awarded the PhD in 1933 at the University of Cincinnati (Benjamin, Henry, & McMahon, 2005).
Contemporary Psychology
Contemporary psychology is influenced by all of the historical perspectives and is a diverse field.
The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychologists in the United States, with the mission to advance psychological knowledge for the betterment of people.
The Association for Psychological Science (APS) was founded in 1988 and seeks to advance the scientific orientation of psychology.
Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology
Biopsychology explores how our biology influences our behavior.
Biological psychologists want to understand how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior.
This interdisciplinary approach is often referred to as neuroscience.
Evolutionary psychology seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior.
Evolutionary psychology, and specifically, the evolutionary psychology of humans, has enjoyed a resurgence in recent decades.
Sensation and Perception
Scientists interested in both physiological aspects of sensory systems as well as in the psychological experience of sensory information work within the area of sensation and perception.
Our experience (or perception) is complex and is influenced by where we focus our attention, our previous experiences, and even our cultural backgrounds.
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions.
This has led some to coin the term cognitive science to describe the interdisciplinary nature of this area of research.
Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of development across a lifespan.
Developmental psychologists are interested in processes related to physical maturation and also focus on changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes.
Personality Psychology
Personality psychology focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique.
The Five Factor model includes dimensions of conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion.
Social Psychology
Social psychology focuses on how we interact with and relate to others.
Social psychologists conduct research on a wide variety of topics including differences in how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts.
Forensic psychology is a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Industrial-Organizational psychology (I-O psychology) is a subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings.
I-O psychologists are often involved in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment.
Health Psychology
Health psychology focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
This particular approach is known as the biopsychosocial model.
Health psychologists are interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, and research.
Sport and Exercise Psychology
Researchers in sport and exercise psychology study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing.
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior.
Counseling psychology is a similar discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy.
Forensic psychologists (and forensic psychiatrists) will assess a person’s competency to stand trial, assess the state of mind of a defendant, act as consultants on child custody cases, consult on sentencing and treatment recommendations, and advise on issues such as eyewitness testimony and children’s testimony
Careers in Psychology
Psychologists can work in many different places doing many different things. In general, anyone wishing to continue a career in psychology at a 4-year institution of higher education will have to earn a doctoral degree in psychology for some specialties and at least a master’s degree for others.
Some people earning PhDs may enjoy research in an academic setting. However, they may not be interested in teaching. These individuals might take on faculty positions that are exclusively devoted to conducting research. This type of position would be more likely an option at large, research-focused universities.
Other Careers in Academic Settings
Often times, schools offer more courses in psychology than their full-time faculty can teach. In these cases, it is not uncommon to bring in an adjunct faculty member or instructor. Alternatively, they may not hold the doctoral degree required by most 4-year institutions and use these opportunities to gain experience in teaching.
In general, many of the people who pursue careers at these institutions have master’s degrees in psychology, although some PhDs make careers at these institutions as well.
Career Options Outside of Academic Settings
Individuals who wish to become practicing clinical psychologists have another option for earning a doctoral degree, which is known as a PsyD.
Licensed clinical or counseling psychologists can then work in a number of settings, ranging from private clinical practice to hospital settings.
While both can conduct therapy and counseling, clinical psychologists have a PhD or a PsyD, whereas psychiatrists have a doctor of medicine degree (MD). As such, licensed clinical psychologists can administer and interpret psychological tests, while psychiatrists can prescribe medications.
Psychological Research
Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world and is necessary to divest ourselves of preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.
Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior.
Why Is Research Important?
Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical: It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing. While behavior is observable, the mind is not.
Notable Researchers
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology.
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a preeminent first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the United States
Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920, he is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology.”
Inez Beverly Prosser (1895–1934) became the first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology. Prosser’s research highlighted issues related to education in segregated versus integrated schools
The Process of Scientific Research
Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method. Ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning, ideas are tested in the real world; in inductive reasoning, real-world observations lead to new ideas. (Figure 2.4). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects:
Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based
Approaches to Research
There are many research methods available to psychologists in their efforts to understand, describe, and explain behavior and the cognitive and biological processes that underlie it. Some methods rely on observational techniques. Other approaches involve interactions between the researcher and the individuals who are being studied—ranging from a series of simple questions to extensive, in-depth interviews—to well-controlled experiments. Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research questions.
Clinical or Case Studies
In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they focus on one person or just a few individuals
The major benefit of this particular approach is the richness of information that is collected
The cases are so specific, the potential to apply what’s learned to the average person may be very limited
Naturalistic Observation
You want to understand how behavior occurs simply observe the behavior in its natural context.
Naturalistic observation- observing behavior in its natural setting. It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally
The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches
Sometimes studies involve structured observation. In these cases, people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks. An excellent example comes from Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth
Surveys
Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally. Surveys allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be afforded by other research methods. A sample is a subset of individuals selected from a population, which is the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in.
There are three mesures of central tendency: mode, median, and mean. The mode is the most frequently occuring response, the median lies at the middle of a given data set, and the mean is the arithemtic average of all data points.
Archival Research
Some researchers gain access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use existing records to answer various research questions. This type of research approach is known as archival research. Archival research relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships
Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research
When we test the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.
Another approach is cross-sectional research. In cross-sectional research, a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time.
Analyzing Finding
Did you know that as sales in ice cream increase, so does the overall rate of crime? Is it possible that indulging in your favorite flavor of ice cream could send you on a crime spree? Or, after committing crime do you think you might decide to treat yourself to a cone? There is no question that a relationship exists between ice cream and crime (e.g., Harper, 2013), but it would be pretty foolish to decide that one thing actually caused the other to occur. It is much more likely that both ice cream sales and crime rates are related to the temperature outside. When the temperature is warm, there are lots of people out of their houses, interacting with each other, getting annoyed with one another, and sometimes committing crimes. Also, when it is warm outside, we are more likely to seek a cool treat like ice cream. How do we determine if there is indeed a relationship between two things? And when there is a relationship, how can we discern whether it is attributable to coincidence or causation?
Correlational Research
Correlation means that there is a relationship between two or more variables (such as ice cream consumption and crime), but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect. When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable changes, so does the other. We can measure correlation by calculating a statistic known as a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r.
Correlation Does Not Indicate Causation
Correlational research is useful because it allows us to discover the strength and direction of relationships that exist between two variables. However, correlation is limited because establishing the existence of a relationship tells us little about cause and effect. Furthermore, people mistakenly make claims of causation as a function of correlations all the time.
Illusory Correlations
The temptation to make erroneous cause-and-effect statements based on correlational research is not the only way we tend to misinterpret data. We also tend to make the mistake of illusory correlations, especially with unsystematic observations. Illusory correlations, or false correlations, occur when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists. One well-known illusory correlation is the supposed effect that the moon’s phases have on human behavior.
Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data
As you’ve learned, the only way to establish that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables is to conduct a scientific experiment.
Experimental design involves two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The two groups are designed to be the same except for one difference— experimental manipulation. The experimental group gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested (in this case, the use of technology)—and the control group does not.
Operational Definiton- A precise description of our variables
Experimenter bias- refers to the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study
Single Blind Study- meaning that one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group
Double Blind Study- Both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments
Placebo Effect- when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation. In other words, simply expecting something to happen can actually make it happen.
Independent variable the researcher is causing the change and the dependent variable is what the researcher measures
Selecting and Assigning Experimental Participants
We need to obtain a sample of individuals to include in our experiment. Our study involves human participants so we need to determine who to include. Participants are the subjects of psychological research, and as the name implies, individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process
Random Sample a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random samples are preferred because if the sample is large enough we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population
Random Assignment- all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.
Reporting Research
When psychologists complete a research project, they generally want to share their findings with other scientists.
A peer-reviewed journal article is read by several other scientists (generally anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter. These peer reviewers provide feedback—to both the author and the journal editor—regarding the quality of the draft.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity are two important considerations that must be made with any type of data collection. Reliability refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result. In the context of psychological research, this would mean that any instruments or tools used to collect data do so in consistent, reproducible ways.
Validity refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure