Chapter#7 - Voting and Elections

Types of Elections

• Midterm Elections
  • An election held near the midpoint of a president's four-year term.
  • All members of the House of Representatives and one-third of the Senators come up for reelection every two years.
• Primary elections
  • Used by political parties to select candidates for the general election.
  • Then each party’s candidates run against each other in the general election.
  • Closed Primary: voters may only vote in the primary of the party with which they are registered (e.g., a registered Republican can only vote in the Republican primary).
  • Open Primary: voters of any affiliation may vote in the primary of any party (e.g., a registered Democrat can vote in the Republican primary).
• General Elections
  • Winners of the primary elections face one another as their parties' nominees in the general election.
  • The general election winner is elected to office for a specified term.
• Runoff elections
  • In some states, if no candidate wins an absolute majority in the primary, a runoff election is held before the general election.
  • This occurs most likely when there are more than two candidates and none has a majority of votes.
• Electoral College
  • The presidential electors from each state meet after the popular election to cast their votes for president and vice president.
  • The Electoral College consists of 538 electors: 435 Representatives + 100 Senators + 3 electors from the District of Columbia.
  • Each state has electors equal to its combined total of Senators and Representatives. Example: Florida has 28 Representatives and 2 Senators, for a total of 30 electors.
  • A candidate must receive at least 270 electoral votes to win the presidency.

The Electoral College (structure and mechanics)

• The Winner-Take-All System
  • In 48 states and the District of Columbia, when a candidate wins a state's popular vote, they receive all of that state's electors (unless there are faithless electors).
  • Example: If President Trump wins Florida’s popular vote, he would win all 30 electors from Florida unless there are faithless electors.
• The District System (Maine and Nebraska)
  • Maine and Nebraska do not use the winner-take-all method.
  • Instead:
  • One electoral vote is awarded to the presidential candidate who wins the popular vote in each congressional district.
  • The remaining two electoral votes are awarded to the candidate receiving the most votes statewide.

Faithless Electors

• Faithless Electors are members of the Electoral College who do not vote for the presidential or vice-presidential candidate for whom they were pledged.
• There is no federal law requiring electors to vote for the party that nominated them; some states have laws that require it, and electors who vote wrongly may face fines or can be replaced.
• It is uncommon for electors to vote against party lines because most electors are selected by their party for loyalty and many are party leaders.
• Notable example: In 2016 there were seven faithless electors—the most since 1972.
  • Three Democratic electors from Washington cast votes for Republican Colin Powell instead of Hillary Clinton.
  • One Republican elector from Texas cast a vote for John Kasich instead of Donald Trump.

Presidential Election Timeline

• Spring (year before election): Candidates announce intentions to run and register with the Federal Election Commission.
• Summer (year before election): Primary and caucus debates take place.
• January to June (year of election): States and parties hold presidential primaries and caucuses.
• July to early September: Parties hold nominating conventions to choose presidential candidates.
  • Just before or during the convention, the presidential candidate announces their vice presidential running mate.
• September and October: Candidates participate in presidential debates.
• November: Election Day is the first Tuesday of November.
• December: Electors cast their votes in the Electoral College.
• January: Congress counts the electoral votes.
• January 20: Presidential Inauguration Day.

Redistricting and Gerrymandering

• Redistricting
  • The process of redrawing boundaries for congressional and state legislative districts every 10 years after the Census to reflect population changes.
• Gerrymandering
  • Redrawing district lines to influence elections in favor of one political party.
  • Named after the 19th-century Massachusetts governor Elbridge Gerry, who was accused of drawing a district in the shape of a salamander to promote his party.

Reapportionment (House seats reallocation)

• Reapportionment is the process by which seats in the House of Representatives are redistributed among the states following the Census every 10 years, to reflect population changes.
• Growth principle: fastest-growing states gain seats; slower-growing states lose seats.
• Historical context: As the population grew, the number of representatives increased until the cap.
  • The House grew from 141 (1800) to 240 (1830), then to 435 by 1910, which is the current cap.
• Present-day detail: There are roughly 710{,}000 residents per House district.

Congressional Reapportionment Results (by decade snapshots)

• 1990 Reapportionment
  • States gained or lost seats (as indicated in the source):
  • Gained seats: multiple states; notable categories include +7 seats, +4 seats, +3 seats, +1 seat.
  • No change: some states.
  • Lost seats: several states; categories include -1, -2, -3 seats.
  • The data show the distribution of seat changes across states for 1990.
• 2000 Reapportionment
  • States gained or lost seats: categories include +2 seats, +1 seat, No change, -1 seat, -2 seats, etc.
  • The results reflect population shifts from the 2000 Census.
• 2010 Reapportionment
  • States gained seats: categories include +4 seats, +2 seats, +1 seat.
  • No change and losses also occur (e.g., -1 seat, -2 seats) in various states.
• 2020 Reapportionment
  • States gained seats: categories include +2 seats, +1 seat.
  • No change and losses also occur (e.g., -1 seat).
• General notes on reapportionment results
  • The process adjusts the distribution of the 435 seats to reflect population changes reported by the Census.
  • Net effect: some states gain representation, others lose representation, while the total number of seats remains 435.

Quick reference: key numbers and concepts

• Total Electoral College votes: 538
• Electors per state = Senators + Representatives
• Districts typically: 435 Representatives in the House (plus 100 Senators + 3 DC electors)
• Electoral votes required to win the presidency: 270
• Total number of Electoral College electors for Maine and Nebraska is not winner-take-all (district method applies for some electors)
• Total House members: 435 (cap since 1910)
• Population per House district (approximate modern figure): 710{,}000 residents per district
• Election Day cadence: First Tuesday in November; then electors vote in December; Congress counts in January; Inauguration on January 20
• Distinctive features to remember:
  • The winner-take-all system applies in 48 states + DC (except ME and NE).
  • Faithless electors are possible but uncommon; several states have laws addressing them.
  • Redistricting occurs every 10 years after the Census; Gerrymandering can influence election outcomes; the term stems from Gerry’s salamander-shaped district.
  • Reapportionment adjusts seats after each Census; the number of seats has changed historically but remains at 435 since 1910.

Connections and implications

• Practical implications
  • The winner-take-all system concentrates electoral influence in battleground states, shaping campaign strategy and resource allocation.
  • Maine and Nebraska’s district method can yield split electoral outcomes within a state.
• Ethical and philosophical implications
  • Gerrymandering raises questions about fair representation and the integrity of the democratic process.
  • Faithless electors prompt debates about the legitimacy and binding nature of the Electoral College.
• Real-world relevance
  • The timeline outlines how campaigns progress from announcements to conventions, debates, and ultimately the Electoral College process.
  • Redistricting and reapportionment have direct effects on political power, representation, and policy outcomes in the U.S. Congress.