Ground operations begin safe flight; poor ground prep reduces margin of safety.
Purpose of Chapter 2: regulatory airworthiness, preflight visual inspection, risk/resource management, and surface movements using AFM/POH and checklists.
Visual preflight assessment mitigates flight hazards and ensures conformance to type design and safe operation.
Legal basis: airworthiness per 14 CFR Part 3 §3.5(a); owner/operator maintenance responsibility; PIC determines condition for safe flight under 14 CFR Part 91 §91.7(a)-(b).
Pilot inspection focus:
Inspect airplane’s airworthiness status.
Follow AFM/POH to determine required visual inspection items.
Airplane logbooks and records:
Maintain airframe/engine (and sometimes propeller/appliance) logbooks; records maintenance, alterations, inspections.
Logbooks are not normally kept in the airplane.
Pilot to inspect logbooks or a summary of airworthy status prior to flight to ensure records are current.
Required inspections (summary):
Annual inspection within 12extcalendarmonths (14 CFR Part 91, §91.409(a)).
100-hour inspection if the aircraft is operated for hire (14 CFR Part 91, §91.409(b)).
Transponder certification within the preceding 24extcalendarmonths (14 CFR Part 91, §91.413).
Static system and encoder certification within the preceding 24extcalendarmonths for IFR flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR Part 91, §91.411).
30ext−day VOR check when using VOR for IFR (14 CFR Part 91, §91.171).
ELT inspection within the last 12extmonths (14 CFR Part 91, §91.207(d)).
ELT battery due (14 CFR Part 91, §91.207(c)).
Current life-limited parts status per Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR Part 91, §91.417).
Compliance with Airworthiness Directives (ADs) and related logbook entries (14 CFR Part 91, §91.417(a)(2)(v)).
FAA Form 337 – Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR Part 91, §91.417).
Inoperative equipment (14 CFR Part 91, §91.213).
Visual preflight assessment begins on approach to the airplane; look for misalignment, distortions, skin damage, fuel/oil leaks.
Onboard documents to verify:
Current Airworthiness Certificate (14 CFR Part 91, §91.203).
Current Registration Certificate (14 CFR Part 91, §91.203).
Radio station license for international flights or airplanes >12,500 lb (FCC).
Visual Preflight Assessment (interior and exterior)
Cabin/flight deck: inspect interior for serviceability, dryness, and secure attachment; carpets, seat belts, shoulder harnesses for fraying and secure mounting; seats latch properly; rails not excessively worn; seat locks function.
Windows/windshield: clean, free from cracks/crazing; damaged windows impede visibility.
Exterior checks per AFM/POH sequence; follow the required sequence (often cabin entry opening, then counterclockwise around aircraft).
Look for signs of deterioration: spar lines, wing/empennage attach points, rivet heads with cracks or black oxide around rivets indicating loosened rivets.
Cracks and structural concerns: stop-drill cracks in aluminum surfaces where applicable; cracks beyond stop-drilled locations require maintenance intervention.
On composite airplanes: no rivets; check spar-to-skin delamination; look for bubbles, fine hairline cracks, or changes in sound when tapped.
Fuel and oil considerations (overview): check fuel grade, quantity, and quality; check for fuel stains indicating leaks.
Required on-board checks for documents listed above.
AFM/POH Preflight Items (typical sequence)
Landing gear control DOWN (if applicable).
Master, alternator, and magneto switches OFF.
Control column locks REMOVED.
Fuel selectors checked for proper operation in all positions, including OFF.
Trim wheels set for takeoff position (elevator, and possibly rudder/aileron).
Mechanical gyros checked for hazing that could indicate leaks.
Avionics master ON to check avionics; OFF after checks.
Circuit breakers checked IN.
Verify landing gear handle DOWN; then MASTER ON; note fuel quantities on gauges; verify pressure if fuel pumps ON.
Check interior/exterior lights and annunciator panels.
If retractable gear: check GREEN lights for down-and-locked.
Flight instruments checks:
Airspeed reads ZERO at rest.
Altimeter set to current subscale; field elevation within 75extft for IFR, when applicable (expressed in feet).
Magnetic compass indicates accurate direction; compass correction card legible; conventional wet compasses have clear fluid. Cloudiness, bubbles, or dry cases render unusable.
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) reads ZERO; if not, joystick or small screwdriver can adjust mechanical VSI (the only instrument adjustable by pilot).
Avionics master ON to check avionics; otherwise OFF.
If modern glass/IFD: verify deck references, removal of Xs on engine indicators, pitot/static checks, annunciator tests, fuel levels, avionics cooling fans.
Aircraft-specific preflight: follow AFM/POH; allow time for extensive advanced avionics preflight checklists.
Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section
AFM/POH sequence may start cabin and proceed counterclockwise; use awareness for deterioration and distortion in metal or composite structures; check for loose/missing rivets or screws.
Critical areas to inspect: spar lines, wing/tail attach points, wing struts, landing gear attachments; load stresses concentrate at spar lines and attach points.
Spar lines: look for distortion, ripples, bubbles, dents, creases, waves – any structural deformity may indicate internal damage.
Rivet heads: look for cracked paint or black oxide film indicating rivet movement.
Leading edges: inspect for impact damage (rocks, ice, birds, hangar rash); inspect aerodynamic devices (stall fences/slots/vortex generators) and deicing equipment (weeping wings/boots).
Metal airplanes: wingtips/fairings may be thin fiberglass/plastic; cracks may radiate from screw holes; stop-drilling used to halt crack growth.
Cracks beyond stop-drilled locations or new cracks require repair.
Composite airplanes: no rivets; delamination or spar-to-skin issues identified by bubbles, hairline cracks, or sounds when tapped; discuss any issues with a rated mechanic.
Fuel and Oil
AVGAS grades: 80/87,
100LL,
100/130; 100LL most common in the U.S.; AVGAS dyed colors: 80/87oextred,ext100LLoextblue,ext100/130oextgreen
100LL blue dye can be hard to see; alternate acceptable only if aircraft approved with STC for alternate grades.
Detonation (engine knocking) explained: fuel-air pockets explode rather than burn evenly; results in higher piston/cylinder temperatures, more wear, reduced power; mild detonation may occur but severe detonation can cause engine failure quickly.
Jet fuel is kerosene-based; for turbine engines; misfueling with jet fuel into piston engines has catastrophic consequences; jet fuel nozzles differ from AVGAS nozzles (jet deflectors vs straight-fill).
Fuel grading and quantity: ensure correct grade and adequate reserves; verify fuel caps are secured after fueling; attitude effects (nosegear/strut extension, ramp slope) can affect indicated fuel quantity; visually verify gauges against actual fuel levels.
Fuel stains indicate leaks; check rivet lines in wet-wing tanks for fuel leakage signs.
Water and sediment contamination: water settles at low points; contamination can be due to condensation, rain exposure, storage, or deteriorating rubber seals; inspect samples for color and presence of bubbles; drain both fuel strainer and each tank sump to check grade/color, water, dirt, odor; if water present, sample until no water remains.
If significant water/dirt contamination found, consult maintenance; drain order per AFM/POH; ensure vent systems are free of obstructions and damage.
Best practice: keep tanks near full to minimize condensation; fill after each flight if possible to slow rubber aging and moisture ingress.
Water/condensation checks: fuel vent inspection required to prevent fuel starvation; ensure vents clear of obstructions; use flashlight to inspect vents.
Aviation oils: grades include single/multi-grade and mineral/synthetic; use approved oil; oil maintains lubrication and heat transfer; maintain oil level to minimum as per engine operating requirements; oil color darkens with hours due to contaminants; unusual rapid darkening after oil change may indicate engine issues.
Oil level checks during preflight and after refueling; do not let oil drop below minimum during operation.
Fuel/oil responsibility: pilot oversees fuel/oil quantity/quality during refueling and oil addition; ensure caps replaced securely.
Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes
Landing gear variants: fixed vs retractable; inspection should follow AFM/POH; wheel pants on fixed-gear can hinder inspection but still incumbent on pilot.
Inspect for hydraulic leaks, grease, oil; verify gear alignment and height consistency; logs for wear and damage.
If multiple pilots: worn tires may be unknown from previous flights; inspect circumference by slight aircraft movement when possible.
Wheel hubs: cracks, corrosion, loose fasteners; check valve stems is straight, capped, good condition.
Brakes and brake systems: free from rust/corrosion; secure fasteners and safety wires; brake pads with adequate remaining material; brake lines free of leaks/abrasions.
Nose gear/shimmy damper (tricycle gear): inspect damper for leaks and condition; elastomeric dampers may be used instead of hydraulic fluid; check nose gear links and torque; ensure no excessive play.
Tailwheel or skid gear (conventional): check for bungee cords’ condition; ensure secure attachment.
Gear-to-fuselage area: check for wrinkled skin, loose bolts/rivets, corrosion around attachment points.
Engine and Propeller
Engine/propulsion system critical; pilot must identify and mitigate potential hazards prior to flight to prevent emergency.
Cowling inspection: look for loose/missing bolts, rivets, latches; inspect from above, sides, and bottom; black oxide around rivets indicates looseness; chipped paint near fasteners may indicate security problems; refer to maintenance if issues arise.
After cowling check, inspect propeller spinner (if installed): inspect for dents, cracks, corrosion, alignment; spinner interior for ice in spinner; ice can cause vibration; check for ice around hub region and rear plate.
Propeller blades: check for erosion, nicks, cracks, pitting, corrosion; ensure blade securement; controllable-pitch propeller hub oil leaks may occur and should be checked.
Belts (if applicable): check alternator/generator drive belts for tension and wear.
Inside cowling: check for oil leaks, condition of oil/hydraulic lines; ensure oil cap, filter, oil cooler, drain plug secure; look for dye indicating fuel leaks on inner cowling; wires/lines secured.
Look for foreign objects in cowling (bird nests, tools); check exhaust system for white stains from leaks; check heat muffs for cracks/leaks; any isolated oxidized patches may indicate overheating.
Firewall integrity check; air filter condition (free from debris; no insects or nests); filter element material varies; ensure clean and serviceable.
Risk and Resource Management
Ground ops require risk assessment and resource management; consult the Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2).
Key statistics: Approximately 85extpercent of aviation accidents attributed to pilot failure; reducing these failures is foundational to risk management.
Risks in flight differ from everyday activities; risk management requires more than stick-and-rudder skills.
Risk Management (definition and process)
Hazard: condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to an undesired event (incident/accident).
Examples of hazards: extMarginalweatherorenvironmentalconditions; lack of pilot qualification/currency/proficiency.
Risk: future impact of a hazard not controlled/eliminated; uncertainty created by hazard.
Hazard example consequences: If weather not properly assessed, inadvertent IMC may lead to loss of control; pilot training gaps can place pilot in regimes beyond capabilities.
Risk assessment: determine degree of risk and whether it is worth the activity; pilots should have viable alternatives if flight cannot proceed.
Risk mitigation examples for a VFR flight in marginal conditions: wait for better weather; fly with experienced/IFR-rated pilot; delay or cancel; drive instead.
Resource Management (SRM/CRM)
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) is common in general aviation; integrates:
Situational Awareness
Human Resource Management
Task Management
Aeronautical Decision-making (ADM)
Situational Awareness: accurate perception of factors affecting flight; finding what is happening in and around the flight using airplane, environment, and external support.
Human Resource Management: effective use of all available resources (people, equipment, information).
Human resources include weather briefer, ground crew, maintenance, crew, ATC, passengers, etc.; communication process components: inquiry, advocacy, assertion.
Modern automated systems can reduce pilot workload but may reduce situational awareness; pilot must monitor systems to maintain awareness.
Proper workload management: plan ahead to reduce workload during critical phases; complete routine tasks early to avoid overload during critical phases.
ADM, SRM, and SRM Components
Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) integrates stick-and-rudder, systems operation, and ADM skills; ADM steps:
1) Identify personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight;
2) Learn behavior modification techniques;
3) Learn to recognize and cope with stress;
4) Develop risk assessment skills;
5) Use all available resources;
6) Evaluate effectiveness of personal ADM skills.
ADM helps pilots recognize errors and manage them to minimize effects; not a guarantee of error-free flight.
Ground Operations and Ramp Environment
Airport ramp is complex: aircraft, vehicles, personnel, passengers, and animals; piloting responsibility to operate safely at all times.
Mitigation involves planning and situational awareness; review airport diagram prior to operations and keep accessible.
Ramp activities: refueling, passenger/baggage security and loading, ramp and taxi operations, standard ramp signals.
Refueling operations: remove passengers; witness fueling to ensure correct fuel and quantity; caps/cowls secured after fueling; supervise passenger safety on ramp.
Baggage loading: supervise to prevent CG issues from unsecured baggage.
Ramp hazards: variable (deserted to busy corporates); heavy exhaust or rotor downwash can cause loss of control; mitigate for light aircraft accordingly.
Ramp signals (Figure 2-13): standard hand signals for safe departure; night-time Emergency Stop signal used for all stop indications.
Engine Starting
Engine starting procedures must follow AFM/POH; some general hazard mitigations:
Ensure ramp area is clear; behind aircraft is clear to prevent prop wash injuries.
Anti-collision lights ON; for night ops, position lights ON.
Before starter: call “CLEAR” out of side window and wait for response before engaging starter.
When starting: depress wheel brakes; hold throttle; maintain hand on throttle to control initial speed.
After starting, set rpm to AFM/POH prescribed setting (generally 1000extrpm) to allow oil pressure rise and minimize wear.
Use proper engine oil grade; preheat as needed in cold temps.
Monitor oil pressure; if not rising toward prescribed value within a reasonable time (generally ~30 seconds), shut down and investigate.
Electric starters: not designed for continuous duty; do not operate more than 30exts without a cooldown period; excessive cranking can burn starter windings.
If starter remains engaged after start (high current draw or warning light), shut down immediately and investigate.
Observe for abnormal sounds, vibrations, smells; shut down if concerns arise.
Hand Propping
Hand propping is hazardous; performed only per AFM/POH by trained personnel.
When engine started without electrical starter, two-person team required:
Person out front directs pulling the propeller through;
Person in cockpit ensures brakes set and controls are ready.
Hand propping setup and safety commands:
Out-front: "FUEL ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET."
In-cockpit: confirm and respond with same phrases; coordinate with controls.
Out-front: after pulling blade, call "BRAKES AND CONTACT."
In-cockpit: set brakes and switch magnetos ON, say "BRAKES AND CONTACT."
Language clarity: use CONTACT (magnetos ON) and SWITCH OFF (magnetos OFF) to reduce miscommunication in noisy environments.
Propping technique: push blade downward with palms; stand at arm’s length; step back as engine starts; avoid gripping with fingers to prevent injury.
If engine fails to start, do not reposition blade until magnetos OFF.
Throttle: gradual opening of throttle during cold start reduces backfiring risk.
After start: check oil pressure within ~30 seconds; adjust throttle to manufacturer-specified warmup rpm (often 1000extto1300extrpm).
Ground cooling: on-ground operation with full low-pitch prop is necessary for cooling; keep cowl flaps open unless specified; ensure no bystanders are in prop wash.
After wheel chocks removal: approach from rear of prop and ensure everyone understands the plan; propeller is dangerous and nearly invisible when moving.
Taxiing
Taxiing is controlled movement on the surface; maintain situational awareness of ramp, taxiways, runways, and people/equipment.
Airport diagram accessibility recommended during ground operations (Figure 2-14).
Review taxi plan prior to movement; do not rely solely on ATC instructions; misinterpretation can cause an accident.
Keep eyes outside the airplane; scan near and far for conflicts and hazards; stop if clearance uncertain.
Safe taxi speed: maintain control and ability to stop promptly; throttle-dependent movement preferred over excessive braking.
Center aircraft on taxiways; avoid collision with obstacles; some airports have taxi lights/signage that affect taxi routing.
Centerline alignment: place fuselage centerline under yellow taxiway centerline stripes when present.
Turns: slow before turning; sharp turns can overload landing gear and cause loss of control; may be more severe in high winds due to weathervaning.
Steering: primarily rudder pedals; brakes as needed to control speed; hold rudder pressure during turn; release as turning completes.
Engine power management: more power may be needed to start or initiate a turn; reduce power promptly once movement begins.
Brake test: confirm brakes function by applying power, then reducing throttle and applying moderate braking to ensure proper function.
Neutralization of aileron/elevator during straight taxi: at no-wind conditions, keep these controls neutral; avoid using them as steering devices.
Crosswinds: upwind wing control adjustments to counter wind effects (Figure 2-15):
Quartering headwinds: keep upwind elevator neutral and apply slight downwind aileron to reduce lift; maintain stability.
Quartering tailwinds: elevator down, upwind aileron down to reduce tail/nose pitch and weathervaning.
Headwinds: strong headwinds increase tail surface lift; hold elevator neutral to maintain pitch and allow forward speed.
Downwind taxiing: usually less engine power after rollout; minimize braking usage to avoid overheating brakes; throttle to minimum to maintain control.
Nosewheel vs tailwheel dynamics: nosewheel aircraft rely on rudder pressure for steering; conventional gear may require braking to assist turns.
Weathervaning tendency reduced in nosewheel aircraft; main wheels behind CG provide better directional stability.
Taxiing checklists: use AFM/POH; verify instruments with zero airspeed (or near zero), level attitude, no flags on attitude indicator; altimeter set; VOR/gyro cross-checks; VSI at zero.
For glass cockpits: ensure data integrity and proper cross-checks between gyros and GPS or alternate navigation sources.
Before-Takeoff Check
The before-takeoff check is the AFM/POH procedure for engine, controls, systems, instruments, and avionics before flight.
Run-up position: typically near the runway end; engine must warm to minimum operating temperature; oil temperature checks.
Run-up location: firm surface; avoid debris (pebbles, dirt, sand) that could damage propeller or tail.
Split attention: alternate glances inside with external checks to prevent unnoticed braking slips or unwanted movement.
On ground, air-cooled engines rely on airflow; cowl baffling and cowling cooling are less effective on the ground; engine instruments require monitoring during run-up.
Wind orientation: position into the wind to improve cooling; monitor cylinder head temperature and other engine indications; adjust cowl flaps per AFM/POH.
Typical systems reviewed during run-up/checks:
Fuel system: set per AFM/POH; verify ON and correct tanks selected.
Trim: set for takeoff; elevator and possibly rudder/aileron trim.
Flight controls: exercise full range of motion; ensure no binding.
Engine operation: temperatures/pressures in normal ranges; magneto/FADEC operation; carb heat function if equipped; constant-speed/feathering prop operation as applicable.
Electrical system: voltages in range; battery charging status.
Vacuum system: adequate vacuum (≈4.8–5.2 in-Hg at 2000 rpm) per manufacturer values; allow gyroscopic instruments to spool up properly.
Flight instruments checked and set for departure; directional gyro cross-checked with magnetic compass; attitude indicators clear of flags.
Avionics: configured frequencies and sources; autopilot preselects; transponder codes set.
Takeoff briefing: should be spoken aloud; verify runway, wind, VR, initial heading, and climb initial altitude; discuss engine failure scenarios and contingency actions.
Takeoff checks: verify runway numbers match magnetic compass; doors/windows secured; crosswind preparations; power and rpm within limits; engine instruments green; etc.
Takeoff Checks and Takeoff Briefing
Ensure runway numbers align with magnetic heading and runway orientation.
Last checks before takeoff:
Doors latched; windows closed as required.
Controls set for anticipated crosswind.
Power set correctly; engine rpm normal; engine smooth; instruments within green.
Takeoff brief example (sample wording in text): includes normal/short/soft takeoff, wind, rotation speed (VR), initial heading, climb plan, engine failure responses, and decision points about returning or landing in case of failure.
After-Landing and Clear of Runway
After-landing roll: reduce to normal taxi speed; maintain runway centerline; avoid rapid turns or aggressive braking; excessive roll speed can damage gear, tires, or airframe.
After-landing checklist performed only after complete stop beyond runway markings unless manufacturer-required exceptions apply (e.g., short-field rollout with flap work).
Arrival taxi considerations: ensure correct surface and direction; confirm proper surface for departure; verify correct taxi sequence with ATC and center signals.
Parking and Engine Shutdown
Parking: choose location to avoid propeller/jet blast; park into prevailing wind if possible; align with tie-downs.
Stop and align: roll forward slightly to align nose/tail gear; put chocks; observe wind when parking.
Engine shutdown (AFM/POH-driven):
Parking brake ON.
Throttle to idle/1,000 rpm.
If turbocharged, spool-down per manufacturer guidance.
Magneto check OFF at idle rpm.
Prop control to HIGH RPM if applicable.
Avionics OFF; electrical OFF; master OFF.
Mixture to IDLE CUTOFF.
Magneto switch OFF.
Install chocks; release parking brake.
Master switch OFF.
Secure controls with locks and anti-theft devices.
Post-shutdown actions: secure airplane, remove key, secure logbook and access; ensure hangar tie-downs or lock pins are in place.
Post-Flight and Securing and Servicing
Post-flight inspection after deplaning: walk around to assess overall aircraft condition; look for oil or fuel streaks near cowling and around oil breather; inspect wings and fuel-tank areas for fuel stains; inspect landing gear for damage and brakes for leaks; inspect cowling inlets for obstructions.
Oil and fuel management after flight: top up or adjust oil per AFM/POH; add fuel as necessary based on next flight or storage needs; keep fuel to reduce condensation during inactivity.
Hangar and security: park in hangar or tie-down area; secure control locks and anti-theft devices; consider using pitot tube covers, cowling inlet covers, rudder gust locks, window sunscreens, and propeller locks to mitigate hazards.
Hangar considerations: ensure enough space to prevent impact with hangar or other aircraft; inspect aircraft after hangar to ensure no new damage.
Chapter Summary
Chapter emphasizes airworthiness determination, preflight visual inspection, risk/resource management, safe ground surface operations, and adherence to AFM/POH and checklists.
Key takeaway: flight safety begins with proper ground preparation and ongoing monitoring of risk, resources, and conditions; PIC must honestly evaluate capabilities and act accordingly.