Everything Altogether
Work Before Capitalism
Lecture 1: The History of Global Capitalism
What was the Middle Ages?
Definition: A period in European history from approximately 1000 to 1500
Context: This era existed between the decline of the Roman Empire and the rise of capitalism.
Key Questions
What was daily life like in the Middle Ages?
How did ordinary people make sense of their world?
Rural Life in the Middle Ages
Demographics: 90% of all people were dependent on agriculture, living off the land.
Social Structure: Few towns or trade routes existed; the majority of people produced what they needed for subsistence.
Living Conditions: Peasants resided in small villages that were often surrounded by hedges and livestock.
Historical Note: Some hedges and stone walls in England date back over a thousand years.
The Common Preoccupation
Diet: A typical medieval diet consisted of porridge, wheat and rye bread, along with herbs and fruits gathered from nearby forests.
Work Commitment: Peasants worked at least 220 days per year as labor to pay “rent” to their lords.
The Workday
Agricultural Practices: Villages typically employed a three-course crop rotation system:
One-third of the land was sown in winter.
One-third was sown in spring.
One-third was designated for animal pasture.
Timekeeping: Time was primarily marked by the rise and fall of the sun; clocks were nonexistent.
Lunch Practices: The concept of “noon” as a designated lunch break was established in the mid-12th century.
Labor Division: There was an absence of gendered division of labor, where both men and women participated equally in various forms of work.
Visual Aid: Included a drawing of fieldworkers from around 1320.
The Tools of Agriculture
The Plough
Importance: Recognized as one of the most significant tools available to European farmers during this period.
The Spinning Wheel
Origin: This technology had been utilized for centuries in India and China, was adopted in Muslim lands, and then imported into Europe.
The Family Structure
Definition Over Time:
In classical Latin, “family” referred specifically to a group of slaves attached to a household.
By the Middle Ages, “family” meant the household itself, encompassing not only relatives but also all servants and dependents.
Lords’ Intent: Estate owners were motivated by maintaining and providing for their increasing number of dependents rather than by profit.
Historical Context: Economic investment, as understood today, was not part of their worldview.
Post-1215 Development: After this date, the Church sanctioned marriages among individuals four degrees of separation apart.
Social Stratification
Slaves, Serfs, and Free Peasants
Slaves and Serfs:
Conditions: Could be bought and sold, conditions were hereditary.
Rights: Allowed to save small amounts of money and acquire land; their marriages were officially recognized.
Free Peasants:
Liberty: Did not owe labor to lords and could leave their villages.
Land Ownership: Sometimes possessed their land.
Population Distribution in 1087:
Serfs: approximately 40% of the English population
Smallholders: about 32%
Free tenants: around 14%
Slaves: around 10%
The Commons
Definition: Land set aside for collective use by the workers in almost every manor, called the “Commons.”
Conflict: These areas were often sites of contention between peasants and the aristocracy.
Technological Advancements
The Slow March of Time
The Blast Furnace: Developed in Sweden around 1350.
The Mill: Initially created for ships to manage sails, widely used for grain grinding by the 11th century.
The Clock: Introduced to Europe in the 13th century, initially appearing in monasteries.
The Rise in Agricultural Productivity
Technological Impact: Slight increases in agricultural productivity led to a rising birth rate.
Expansion of Settlements: New settlements were founded in lands that lacked a lord.
Demographics in England: On the northern frontier, two out of five villages escaped labor services, compared to only one in five in the south.
The Emergence of Towns and Markets
Urbanization: The rise of cities transpired gradually; by 1500, only 15-20% of Europeans resided in cities, which could have populations up to around 200,000.
Challenges: Cities struggled with logistical issues such as food and wood transportation, which impeded urban growth.
Market Necessity: Markets were essential for survival; town fairs emerged as a tradition to sustain urban populations.
Guilds: Local, spontaneous organizations dedicated to specific crafts or businesses.
Visual Aids: Included the artwork “Peasant Family Going to Market” from the 15th century and images of medieval towns such as Perugia and Assisi in modern times.
The Coming of Calamities
The Malthusian Trap
Definition: A concept illustrating that while population growth can be exponential, food supply grows in a linear manner, leading to potential starvation once the population surpasses food resources.
Living with Death
Social Implications: Relationships were frequently threatened by the constant presence of death.
Coping Mechanisms: Remarriage was a regular aspect of life.
Widow Statistics: In certain towns, 30% of brides were widows.
Making Sense of the World
Religious Influence: Christianity played a significant role; the afterlife was of utmost importance to medieval individuals.
Societal Rank: Social rank was seen as destiny, and individuals were expected to accept their positions with contentment.
Economic Justice: The concept of the “Just Price” emerged, where economic interactions were governed by standards of justice rather than market forces:
It was deemed immoral to raise prices injustly, for instance, charging more for bread due to a famine.
Notable Quotes
St. Francis of Assisi
“The less a human being possesses, the more he or she belongs to God.”
The Black Death
Timeline: An epidemic disease struck from 1346 to 1352, resulting in the death of about one-third of the European population.
Mortality Rates: Some towns experienced mortality rates as high as 60% of their residents.
Speed of Mortality: The plague was notorious for its ability to kill individuals in just a single day.
Economic Impact: The Black Death instigated one of the most significant wealth redistributions in modern history, functioning as a great social equalizer.
Key Takeaways
The Middle Ages (roughly 1000-1500) were characterized by the unfree nature of the serf population, with 90% relying on subsistence farming.
The definition of “family” encompassed all household dependents, leading to fluid family structures due to the prevalent threat of death.
Lords possessed estates not out of profit motivation; community moral standards influenced economic dealings.
Towns and markets arose gradually in response to increased agricultural productivity, enhanced by technological inventions.
The Black Death had a devastating impact on the population and acted to level social hierarchies.
The following lecture will explore the dissolution of this social structure.
The European Origin Story: Study Notes
Week 2 Overview
Focus on the origins and development of capitalism in Europe, the socio-economic impact of the transition from medieval life, and the ideological context of these changes.
Review Questions
What is a primary source?
What is a secondary source?
What was life like in the Middle Ages?
How did people make sense of their world?
The Archives
U.S. National Archives: Contains 9 billion pages of textual records. Highlighting the importance and volume of primary historical sources available for research.
History as a Debate
Different narratives about the origins of capitalism depend on varied archival sources. Notable books assert contradictory views based on differing interpretations of records.
Key Questions: The Rise of Capitalism in Europe
What were the key events and conditions that led to the rise of capitalism?
What were the consequences of this rise for everyday life?
The Agrarian Origin of Capitalism
Inquiry into what documents historians of the countryside would consider significant in exploring early capitalism.
Comparative Method
Robert Brenner's Research:
Analyzed documents on rural labor across Europe.
Concluded the Black Death caused significant disruptions in the old labor system due to a reduced workforce.
Resulted in the abolition of slavery and serfdom in some regions.
Peasants were able to negotiate lower rents.
Legal consolidation of peasant rights, including freedom.
The Destruction of the Commons
Key processes involved in the transition:
Erecting Fences: To demarcate property and restrict common land use.
Enclosing Villages: Physical separations leading to reduced communal lands.
Passing Legislation: Laws enacted to formalize and legally enforce enclosures despite resistance.
Visual Representation of Enclosure (Bere Regis, 1775)
Map showing the enclosures in Bere Regis Manor:
Shaded sections represent land already enclosed by 1775.
Property boundaries illustrated with broken lines where different.
Significant land suitability and productivity shifts.
Consequences of Enclosure
Rise of Wage Labor:
Peasants, losing land and the ability to cultivate their own food, became reliant on selling their labor.
This transition led to dependency on market forces for survival.
Emergence of Market Incentives:
The introduction of wages opened up market competition.
Rents transformed from customary to landlord-determined rates, favoring highest bidders.
Landlords shifted focus to profit maximization.
Rise in Agricultural Productivity:
Improvements defined as actions taken for monetary gain.
Concrete changes:
Adoption of the wheel plough.
Implementation of crop rotation systems.
Draining of marshy and swampy land for agriculture.
Population Dynamics
Population Growth in England:
Historical data shows striking population increases correlating with periods of agricultural and economic shifts.
Malthusian Trap Analysis: A period where population exceeded resources, with humans navigating societal structures to overcome such constraints.
Historical Population Statistics (England)
Population trends from 10,000 BC to 1800 AD:
Starting from around 10 million, populations rose to approximately 50 million by the year 1800, showcasing significant demographic changes.
Key Question #2: Daily Life Consequences
Examination of societal responses and changes brought on by economic shifts.
Policing the Homeless
Historical legislation addressing vagabondage (1531-1547), with severe punishments:
Descriptions of penalties for those without land or lawful means of earning a living, emphasizing the brutal enforcement measures against the poor.
The Reaction of the Poor
Peak of 3 major peasant rebellions in England (1550-1630), highlighting social unrest against oppressive labor practices.
Cultural Reflection on Class Issues
Poetic commentary on property and law:
Folk perceptions of theft versus property rights, critiquing the legal system favoring the wealthy landowners while punishing the impoverished.
The Ideological Justification
John Locke's Philosophy:
Argues that private property rights are a natural entitlement, foundational to U.S. governance.
Asserts that "improvement" of land justifies personal ownership and exclusion from common rights.
Cultural Chaos and Property Types
Types of Property:
Moveable Property: Items like slaves, clothing, and furniture that can be transferred.
Immovable Property: Land and buildings viewed as permanent assets, impacting future generations.
Contrasts between medieval and capitalist frameworks.
The Stress over Dress
Cultural anxieties expressed through art:
Notable artworks depicting societal issues related to attire and status.
Key Takeaways
Robert Brenner's position: Capitalism emerged from agricultural practices in English rural contexts.
Enclosure marked a pivotal shift leading to market dependency.
Peasant resistance and its implications on cultural identity and class structures.
The Atlantic Origin Story
Lecture Three: The History of Global Capitalism
The Atlantic Origin Story
Review Questions
Question 1: According to historian Robert Brenner, what brought about the transition to capitalism in England?
Question 2: How did life change after the transition to capitalism?
Key Questions for Today's Lecture
Question 1: How did capitalism emerge in the Americas?
Question 2: How did slavery emerge in the Americas?
Question 3: How did racism emerge in the Americas?
Edmund Morgan's Interpretation
Significance: Morgan is recognized for his influential work titled "American Slavery, American Freedom."
Recognition: The book received the Francis Parkman Prize and is heralded as a significant academic contribution expected to influence the coming decade and beyond (as noted by Eugene D. Genovese, Washington Post).
Other works: Edmund S. Morgan is also the author of the best-selling book on Benjamin Franklin, further establishing his credentials as a scholar in American history.
Key Question #31
Question: How did capitalism come to America?
The Grand Dream
Sir Francis Drake: Recognized as a notorious pirate and the first man to circumnavigate the globe. He played a pivotal role in fighting against the Spanish alongside Africans and indigenous people, demonstrating the complex interactions and alliances of the period.
The Lost Colony of Roanoke
Arrival in Virginia (1585): Englishmen arrived and subsequently discovered the abandoned colony in 1590.
Impressment: This refers to the state-authorized kidnapping of individuals, which was practiced during this period.
Settler Struggles: Impressed English settlers were unable to adapt to the cultivation of local food crops, leading to food shortages.
Conflict with Indigenous People: Attempts by the Algonquin people to abandon the settlers led to a violent response from the settlers, resulting in the massacre of 115 indigenous individuals.
The Second Attempt at Colonization
Virginia Company: Formed in 1606, it aimed to establish a profitable settlement in the New World.
Colonization in Jamestown (1607): The settlers aimed to discover precious metals and other resources like glass, iron, furs, pitch, and tar. They also promised firewood to attract potential settlers.
The Jamestown Fiasco
Population Statistics: By the end of three years, approximately 500 people were in the colony, yet starvation remained a rampant issue.
Survival Measures: During the years 1609-1610, English settlers resorted to cannibalism to survive; only 60 settlers remained alive by the spring due to several factors:
A disproportionate number of gentlemen who were unfamiliar with labor.
Low motivation among settlers to work the land.
Increasing tensions and violence with the indigenous populations.
The First Tobacco Seeds
John Rolfe's Contribution: In 1611, John Rolfe was the first to plant West Indian tobacco seeds in Virginia, achieving initial success with a profit of 3 shillings per pound.
Cultural Shift: Settlers began prioritizing tobacco production instead of food cultivation, forcing them to rely on “moving taverns” for sustenance.
Key Question #2
Question: How did slavery emerge in America?
The Demand for Labor
Labor Production: A ratio of 6 to 7 men could produce approximately 3 to 4 thousand pounds of tobacco, a substantial quantity that could yield significant wealth.
Class Divisions
Social Structure: By 1625, approximately 15 men possessed more servants than other settlers, indicating a shift towards a class stratification.
Introduction of Enslaved Workers: The first enslaved Africans were imported to Virginia by Governor Yeardley in 1619, marking a significant transition in labor systems in the colonies.
Frontier Living Conditions: Tobacco farmers were often pushed to the frontier, where they encountered harsher living conditions.
Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)
Mobilization: Thousands of both white and Black Virginians united to resist Governor Berkeley, ultimately forcing him from Jamestown. The rebellion included attacks on indigenous groups, illustrating early coalitions across racial lines.
Towards Slavery
Timeline: Number of Captives
Embarked and Disembarked Per Year:
Data reflecting the number of enslaved individuals who were embarked and disembarked in British North America:
1610: 3,000 I embarked
1620: 0 I embarked
1630 to 1700: Growth in numbers reflecting the expansion of the slave trade.
Key Question #3
Question: How did racism emerge in the Americas?
“if any CHRISTIAN fornicate with a black person…”
a significant legal framework was established that dehumanized enslaved individuals, marking a pivotal point in the development of systemic racism that justified the oppression and exploitation of people based on their race.
Key Takeaways
The English had no intention of exterminating indigenous people or enslaving Africans when they arrived in Virginia
Colonization almost failed because settlers refused to work
Tobacco changed everything-–capitalism emerged in America
Planters embraced slavery, racism, and genocide in order to prevent an interracial alliance among the lower classes
Most importantly: Racial difference was not “natural.” Planters created it as part of a political project to prevent class unity.
Capitalism and Slavery Lecture Notes
Lecture Overview
Lecture Title: Capitalism and Slavery
Location: Infant School Society Depository, 19, Cheapside London
Primary Focus: Examine the relationship between capitalism and the institution of slavery, particularly in the context of sugar production.
Review Questions
Key Inquiries:
Why did slavery emerge in colonial Virginia?
Why did racism emerge?
Eric Williams
Biography:
Birth: 1911, Trinidad
Education: Notably awarded the only available scholarship to Oxford from Trinidad.
Key Work: Published Capitalism and Slavery in 1944.
Political Career: Became Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago in 1962.
Key Questions Addressed in the Lecture
How did slavery emerge in the Caribbean?
How was this emergence similar to or different from that in Virginia?
In what ways did Caribbean slavery contribute to the industrial revolution?
What factors led to the abolition of slavery?
Emergence of Slavery in the Caribbean
Historical Context:
Arrival of English Settlers: English settlers arrived in Barbados in 1627.
Initial Agricultural Challenges: Settlers experienced difficulties cultivating tobacco.
Economic Shift to Sugar: Sugar was introduced in the 1630s and dramatically increased in profitability by the 1640s.
Labor Strife: Indentured servants in Barbados revolted in 1649 and 1657, indicating labor dissatisfaction.
Transition to African Slavery: Planters began to adopt African slavery around the same time, expanding it to Jamaica.
The African Slave Trade
Royal African Company (RAC):
Establishment: Founded in 1680 with a monopoly on the slave trade.
Transportation Statistics: Between 1680 and 1686, roughly 5000 enslaved individuals were transported annually, with a 20% mortality rate en route.
Loss of Monopoly: In 1698, they lost their charter, thereby recognizing slave trading as an Englishmen's right.
Profitability: Average return on a slave trading voyage could be as high as 29%.
Sugar Cane Production in the Caribbean (1700s)
Plantation System:
Entrepreneurial Scale: British Caribbean planters operated as large-scale industrial entrepreneurs.
Labor Force: Plantations employed hundreds to thousands of enslaved individuals.
Production Output: A workforce of a hundred enslaved individuals could harvest 80 acres, yielding approximately 80 tons of sugar.
Working Conditions: Enslaved individuals often worked at night under dangerous conditions, with extremely high mortality rates.
Caribbean Slavery’s Role in the Industrial Revolution
Triangular Trade:
Route Overview: Flow of raw materials from the Caribbean to North America, manufactured goods from Europe to the Caribbean, and enslaved Africans taken from Africa.
Mercantilism
Definition: A tariff protection system where taxes on imports or exports influence trade.
Impact on British Economy:
Increased tariffs on imported manufactured goods while decreasing agricultural goods' tariffs, boosting British manufacturing and colonial profits.
Rise of Port Cities
Shipping Trends (1710-1714): Approximately 122,000 tons of British shipping directed to the West Indies, and 112,000 to the mainland.
City Growth: Contributed to the expansion of Glasgow, Liverpool, and Bristol.
Development of Banking Systems
Banking Origins: Major British banks, including Barclays and HSBC, originated from profits in the slave trade.
Growth of Industries
Industries Linked to Slavery:
Textile manufacturing
Sugar refining
Rum distillation
Gun manufacturing
Ironmongering
Steam power innovation (James Watt’s steam engine)
Sugar Consumption
Parliamentary Changes (1784):
Tax cuts on tea and sugar significantly altered consumption patterns.
Sugar became a staple in English working-class diets, heavily relied upon by women and children.
Planters' Political Influence
Control Mechanisms: Planters maintained political power through “rotten boroughs,” districts with limited inhabitants, allowing for disproportionate influence.
Abolition of Slavery
Before Eric Williams' Analysis:
Prevailing viewpoint: British moral superiority credited for the abolition.
Critique: British historians often portrayed Britain as having introduced slavery only to abolish it out of altruism.
Timeline of Slavery Abolition
Milestones:
1783: Trade with the United States opens.
1807: Great Britain bans participation in the Atlantic slave trade.
1815: Tariff duties on foreign cotton, sugar, and coffee reduced.
1833: Slavery officially abolished.
Rise of Abolitionism
Economic Shift: British industrialists began opposing West Indian planters, starting with the slave trade (1807), moving to sugar tariffs (1815), and ultimately slavery itself (1833).
New Political Order Post-1832
Reform Bill of 1832: Expanded political participation without granting universal male suffrage, decreasing food taxes, thus lowering meal costs for the working class, while enabling capitalists to lower wages.
Tariff Increases: Benefited British industry by raising tariffs on manufactured goods.
The Concept of “Second” Slavery
Agricultural Output: By mid-century:
One third of global sugar originated from Cuba.
Half of the world's coffee came from Brazil.
Three-quarters of the world’s cotton was produced in the United States.
Continued British Imports: Substantial importation continued into the late 19th century.
Enduring Controversies
Contemporary Repercussions:
Modern corporations confronted for historical roles in slavery, leading to discussions on reparations.
The legacy of slavery has marred the reputation of the British Empire, especially amidst global independence movements.
The Reparations Debate
Current Discourse: The reparations discussion reflects ongoing social and historical implications of slavery. Reference to article from The Guardian (2015).
Key Takeaways
Emergence of Slavery: Driven by sugar demand.
Industrial Revolution Link: Profits from slavery and trade fueled industrial growth.
Economic Conflicts: Industrialists opposed slavery due to competition for cheaper sugar.
Expansion of Slavery: Continued in Cuba, Brazil, and the U.S. following British tariff reductions on sugar, cotton, and coffee.
The Plantation
Review
Key Questions:
How did slavery emerge in the Caribbean?
How did Caribbean slavery contribute to the British industrial revolution?
According to Eric Williams, what brought about the abolition of slavery in the British Empire?
Summary of Previous Discussion
Slavery played a significant role in the rise of British industrial capitalism.
The initial support for slavery was facilitated by mercantilism, which was dismantled post-American Revolution.
Post-revolution, industrial capitalists in Britain sought to abolish mercantilism to establish trade with the United States, prompting their opposition to slavery.
Expansion of Slavery
By the mid-19th century, enslaved individuals contributed significantly to global agriculture:
Enslaved individuals produced one-third of the world’s sugar primarily from Cuba.
Half of the world’s coffee came from Brazil, produced by enslaved labor.
Enslaved people generated three-quarters of the world’s cotton in the United States.
Key Questions on Slavery
Why did this happen?
What were the consequences for enslaved people?
Why was slavery eventually abolished?
Key Question #1: Why Did This Happen?
Technological Influence:
The invention of the Cotton Gin by Eli Whitney in 1794 (visible in a museum).
Reasons for Change:
British Tariff Policy:
Britain lowered tariffs on foreign coffee, sugar, and coffee to stimulate industrial expansion.
Haitian Revolution:
The revolution led to self-emancipated Black soldiers who expelled the French army, destroying a valuable sugar colony.
Proslavery Politics:
Political maneuvering favored the continuation of slave labor.
The Opportunity
For enslavers in the Americas, the aforementioned circumstances represented a tremendous profit opportunity.
The Obstacle
Enslavers confronted the aftermath of the most violent slave revolution in history, fearing a "race war."
White Americans aimed to create conditions that would make slavery "safe" to ensure stability.
The Politics of Slavery
A crucial trigger for the Haitian Revolution was a decree from the French government that provided explicit constitutional protections for slavery.
This led other enslavers to believe that implicit constitutional protections were similarly necessary.
Notably, James Madison, one of the framers of the U.S. Constitution, was a key figure in this discourse.
U.S. Constitutional Context
Two notable examples illustrating slavery-related clauses in the U.S. Constitution:
Article I, Section 2:
Representatives and direct taxes are apportioned among the states based on their population, with enslaved individuals counted as three-fifths of a person.
This inclusion stipulates how state representation and taxation relate to slave-populations.
Article IV, Section 2:
This article mandates that individuals held in service in one state, who escape to another, shall be returned to their owner, reinforcing the institution of slavery legally.
The U.S. Constitutional Model
Labelled as "The Politics of Silence," no public participation was permitted at the Convention.
Explicit mention of the term "slave" was systematically removed from the Constitution.
Comparative Constitutional Examples
The Spanish Constitution (1812):
Used the term "traffic in slaves" instead of referring to "the importation of such people."
Voting rights were limited to "Spaniards" of Spanish ancestry, effectively excluding Africans.
The Brazilian Constitution (1824):
Adopted a federal structure with state representation based on population, without clarification on the inclusion of enslaved individuals.
Those not classified as "brasileiros" were excluded from citizenship rights.
Influence of Slaveowners in Politics
The structure of the early United States was heavily influenced by slaveowners:
11 out of the first 16 Presidents were slaveowners.
17 out of the first 28 Supreme Court Justices were affiliated with slavery.
84 out of the first 134 Foreign Ministers supported slave interests.
Building the Slave Frontier
A paradigm shift occurred with the demand for slaves in Brazil by 1880.
Key Question #2: Consequences for Slaves
Key impacts on enslaved individuals include:
Forced Migration: Major shifts in population dynamics among enslaved individuals.
Increased Exploitation: Higher levels of forced labor and economic demand.
Geographic Transformation
The distribution of enslaved populations altered significantly due to both the transatlantic and internal slave trades:
In Brazil, movement was primarily from the north to southeastern areas.
In the U.S., there was a shift from the mid-Atlantic states to the southeast region.
The Transatlantic Slave Trade to Brazil
A significant transfer of enslaved individuals occurred:
From 1551 to 1875, over 4 million enslaved individuals were brought from Western Africa to the eastern coast of Brazil.
Over 1 million of these enslaved individuals entered during the first half of the 19th century, particularly 700,000 between 1830 and 1850.
The Internal Slave Trade
This led to major demographic shifts and a transformation in where enslaved populations resided within both Brazil and the United States.
Key Question #3: What Destroyed Slavery in Brazil?
Key Factors:
Slave Resistance: Organized and spontaneous resistance against enslavement.
The U.S. Civil War: Influenced Brazilian perspectives on slavery and instigated change.
Slave Homicides
Those resorting to homicide were often slaves forcibly separated from their home regions and family networks, struggling to adapt to the intensive labor environments of coffee plantations.
Many of these slaves resisted attempts by planters or overseers to increase their workload, leading to acts of violence.
Large-Scale Rebellions
Impacts of the U.S. Civil War inspired large rebellions among enslaved populations in Brazil.
The Abolition of Slavery in Brazil
Key historical milestones contributing to the end of slavery:
In 1870, the Spanish Empire declared that all children born to enslaved mothers would be free.
Brazil similarly enacted legislation in 1871, marking a significant shift toward abolition.
Following these measures, slavery faced inevitable decline across the hemisphere.
Key Takeaways
The phenomenon of “Second Slavery” emerged due to:
Changes in the British Tariff policies.
The ripple effects of the Haitian Revolution.
Political maneuvers favoring the sustenance of slavery.
Two primary consequences for enslaved people were:
Forced Migration due to changing economic needs.
Increased Exploitation in labor conditions.
The ultimate abolition of slavery was attributed to:
Continuous Slave Resistance.
Influences from the U.S. Civil War.
The Industrial Emotion: Lecture 5
Introduction
Overview of the industrial revolution and its impact on ordinary life.
Key Questions
What was life like for ordinary people on the eve of the industrial revolution?
How did the industrial revolution transform work?
How did workers react?
What were the consequences for global capitalism?
The Field Laborers
Categories of Field Laborers:
Skilled Shepherds: Experienced in managing sheep and pastoral roles.
Teenage Farmhands: Young workers assisting in agricultural tasks.
Pauper Labor: Seasonal labor mainly from women, children, or Irish migrants during harvest times.
The Artisans
Included trades such as:
Stonemasons
Carpenters
Wheelwrights
Shoemakers
Blacksmiths
Saddlers
Tailors
Weavers
Characteristics:
Owned their own tools and shops.
Maintained traditional notions of a "just price" for their labor and goods.
The Weavers
Weavers typically manufactured cloth at home, involving the following processes:
Purchase wool from the Cotswolds.
Weave the wool in their households.
Sell the final product.
Advantages:
Controlled their own time.
Operated with minimal labor discipline.
The Rights of the English
The “Glorious Revolution” of 1688:
Resulted in the enactment of a Bill of Rights which included the following rights:
Freedom from arbitrary arrest.
Trial by jury.
Equality before the law.
Limited liberty of thought, speech, and conscience.
Provided constitutional precedent for the right to riot against oppression.
Transformation of Work
Question: How did the industrial revolution change the nature of work?
The New Machinery
Significant inventions included:
Spinning Jenny: Invented in the 1760s by James Hargreaves.
Flying Shuttle: Invented in 1733 by John Kay.
Spinning Mule: Invented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton.
The Invention of Samuel Greg
Established the first cotton mill outside of Manchester in 1784.
Acquired wealth as an enslaver in the West Indies and invested approximately £3,000 to build the mill.
Recruited 90 children from local poorhouses as workers.
Achieved an impressive 18% annual profit on his investment in a few years.
The Weakest Went First
Children and orphans were the first to be employed in English mills, with a typical workday starting at 5:30 AM and ending at 8 PM.
Instances of maltreatment included physical punishment, such as being beaten by bosses or hanging irons around the neck for tardiness.
“The Dark Satanic Mills”
By the 1850s, millions were employed in cotton manufacturing with the following work conditions:
Arriving before sunrise and working 12 hours a day, 6 days a week.
Initiation of the practice of “clocking in.”
Beyond the Textile Industry
The factory system endangered every skilled industry beyond textiles, affecting artisans who struggled to maintain their status against both employers and unskilled laborers.
The process of industrialization benefitted specific demographics while marginalizing others.
The Rise of Precarity
A critical observation was that “100,000 weavers doing the work of 150,000” epitomized the conditions of the industrial revolution.
Many families worked just to cover their basic needs, with stories suggesting that it took approximately twelve days of labor to afford four pounds of bread.
The Experience of Degradation
An excerpt capturing the sentiment of impoverished workers:
"You gentlemen and tradesmen, that ride about at will, look down on these poor people…"
This reflects feelings of oppression, exploitation of labor, and demands for change in the face of dire conditions.
Workers' Reactions
Question: How did workers react?
Political Awakening
The Luddites:
Group aimed at destroying technological advancements during the industrial revolution, particularly assaulting factories in 1811.
Made up primarily of skilled machine operators in the textile sector.
Associated with a mythical leader named “Ned Ludd,” although his existence was never verified.
The Owenites
Early proponents of socialism advocating for reforms such as:
An 8-hour workday.
Played a significant role in inspiring the trade union movement of the 1830s.
The Violent Struggle
The government offered protection for industrious weavers who were threatened and harmed by violent groups.
Advertisement details:
A reward of FIFTY GUINEAS was offered for information leading to the conviction of those damaging workers' tools and materials.
Under the 22nd Geo. 3, C. 40, S. 3, such acts were deemed felonies without benefit of clergy.
The Role of the State
During the British industrial revolution, the state played a significant role by:
Supporting capitalists against striking workers.
Utilizing military resources to suppress the Luddites and other uprisings, even during prominent military conflicts, such as the Napoleonic Wars.
At times, more British soldiers were deployed against industry workers than against Napoleon’s forces.
Consequences for Global Capitalism
Question: What were the consequences for global capitalism?
The Ascent of the British
From the 1700s, British cotton exports surged by 200 times, with 94% of this increase occurring between 1780 and 1800.
Analysis of British Cotton Exports
Graphical data showing cotton exports (in millions of pounds sterling) indicates a significant increase from 1700 to 1800.
The Fall of Indian Textiles
Shift in market dynamics leading to the decline of Indian textile production.
Looking Ahead: Impact of Capitalism
Topics for future exploration include:
The Gendered Division of Labor
The Frontier
Key Takeaways
In eighteenth-century England, artisans and weavers valued their independence and craft.
The industrial revolution began in Northern England with Samuel Greg’s establishment of the first cotton mill, funded by profits from slave plantations.
For many workers, the era led to worsening poverty and undermined dignity.
Workers responded by destroying machinery and forming trade unions to advocate for their rights.
The British state responded with military force, asserting its power to maintain social order during the industrial upheaval.
This period solidified Britain’s position as a leading global power.
The Household Lecture
Warm Up
Discussion Prompt: What ideas are traditionally associated with women and work? What about now?
Reading Material
Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead by Sheryl Sandberg, an international bestseller.
Moms Can Do It All!: Discussing the double shift of being a mother and employed full-time by Elizabeth Wingard.
Trad Wife Handbook: The guide to traditional values in modern life by Madeline Green. Includes bonus traditional wife recipes.
Key Questions for Today's Lecture
How did the industrial revolution transform household structures in the Northern United States?
How did Americans try to justify this transformation?
What were the consequences for American women?
Key Themes and Historical Context
Nancy Cott: A pioneering feminist scholar addressing these questions in her work "The Bonds of Womanhood," published in 1977.
Key Question No. 1: Transformation of Household Structures
New England in the Early 1800s:
Predominantly rural environment.
Structure centered around the nuclear family with the patriarch as the head of the household.
The New England Farm vs. The Plantation
Family Labor:
Families often had between 10 to 12 children. A larger family provided more labor.
Sons were essential contributors on family farms until they reached their mid-twenties.
Women's Labor
Example of Martha Ballard:
A midwife from Augusta, Maine, who delivered over 1,000 babies throughout her life.
Notable points:
There was no physical separation of workspaces based on gender, as both men and women participated in child-rearing.
Women were legally classified as economic dependents, limiting their autonomy.
Population Growth Statistics
From 1790 to 1810:
New York's population grew by 182%.
Pennsylvania's population grew by 86%.
Massachusetts's population grew by 25%.
The Lowell Mills
Significance: The first large-scale factory system in the United States.
Participation of Women:
Approximately 7,000 women were employed there by 1830.
They were heavily supervised, alleviating the concerns of parents about their daughters' safety away from home.
Married Women's Roles
Middle- and upper-class women generally did not engage in labor outside the home.
Instead, they became new consumers within the household, with childcare becoming their primary responsibility.
Life in Two Phases: Unmarried vs. Married
Quote from Amelia Jackson reflecting on the dissatisfaction of young women:
"I think a girl's life at my age [21] isn’t the most pleasant by any means; … I have sometimes wished I could be poor to have the pleasure of exerting myself."
Key Question No. 2: Justifying Transformation
Review Prompt: Would you consider women's work in the household as task-oriented or time-oriented labor?
“Home Sweet Home” and Domesticity
Five categories that define domesticity:
Mother’s lives.
Principles of child-rearing.
Women’s role in society.
Education for women.
Etiquette and manners applicable to women.
Base and Superstructure Theory
The Base consists of:
Relations of production.
Means of production (e.g., machines, factories, land, materials).
Controlled by the bourgeoisie (the owning class).
The Superstructure includes:
Education, family, religion, politics, mass media, which maintains and legitimizes the base.
The Idea of Separate Spheres
A delineation emerged between home and the public world:
Home became a “sanctuary” from the workplace.
Concept that if the profit motive caused moral degradation in men, the home served as a remedy.
Key Question No. 3: Consequences for American Women
Prescribed Roles for Women:
Expectations for women to live selflessly for others, and make their husbands happy.
Legally, women's property and earnings belonged to their husbands, limiting their economic independence.
Many women perceived no feasible escape from this role.
The Labor of Motherhood
Women were expected to rear virtuous citizens who were disciplined and orderly, countering immoral external influences.
The Denial of Class Divisions
Many women, particularly from lower economic classes, continued laboring in factories and other sectors to earn a wage.
Middle-class women's growing concerns centered around the idea that these laboring women needed rescue from their conditions.
The Beginning of Reform Movements
Middle-class women began creating roles for themselves beyond domestic settings:
They claimed it their duty to foster a more virtuous society, actively engaging in movements like anti-slavery campaigns.
Additionally, many started opposing alcohol consumption.
The Drunkard's Progress
Illustrates the negative consequences of alcohol, detailing steps from initial consumption to devastation, emphasizing the moral reform narrative.
The Deserving Poor vs. Undeserving Poor
Reformers distinguished between those deserving help and those considered undeserving.
This marked a significant shift from the traditional Christian view represented by St. Francis de Assisi.
Middle-class women advocated values like thriftiness, sobriety, hard work, and deference:
They believed they should regulate assistance given through charity.
and they sought to create a more structured approach to helping those in need, emphasizing the importance of personal responsibility and moral values in charitable actions.
Key Questions
Lecture 1: The History of Global Capitalism
What was daily life like in the Middle Ages?
How did ordinary people make sense of their world?
Week 2 Overview
What is a primary source?
What is a secondary source?
What was life like in the Middle Ages?
How did people make sense of their world?
Key Questions: The Rise of Capitalism in Europe
What were the key events and conditions that led to the rise of capitalism?
What were the consequences of this rise for everyday life?
Key Questions for Today's Lecture
How did capitalism emerge in the Americas?
How did slavery emerge in the Americas?
How did racism emerge in the Americas?
Key Question #31
How did capitalism come to America?
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What was daily life like in the Middle Ages?
Daily life for the majority revolved around agriculture, with about 90% of people working as peasants. They lived in small villages, producing most of what they needed for subsistence, facing hard labor and limited resources.
How did ordinary people make sense of their world?
Ordinary people often interpreted their circumstances through religious beliefs, accepting social hierarchies as destiny and the concept of the 'Just Price' to guide economic interactions.
What is a primary source?
A primary source is an original document or artifact created at the time of the event being studied, providing direct evidence of historical experiences.
What is a secondary source?
A secondary source is an interpretation or analysis of primary sources, often written after the fact by historians or researchers to contextualize historical events.
What was life like in the Middle Ages?
Life in the Middle Ages was characterized by feudal systems, subsistence agriculture, limited mobility, and a heavy reliance on community and tradition.
How did people make sense of their world?
People understood their world largely through religious frameworks, communal ties, and limited but growing market interactions, influencing their perceptions of justice and morality.
What were the key events and conditions that led to the rise of capitalism?
Key events included the decline of feudalism, technological advancements in agriculture, urbanization, and increased trade, coupled with the aftermath of the Black Death that altered labor dynamics.
What were the consequences of this rise for everyday life?
The rise of capitalism led to greater social mobility for some, shifts in labor structures, increased market competition, and ultimately a transformation in social and economic systems affecting everyday life.
How did capitalism emerge in the Americas?
Capitalism in the Americas emerged through the establishment of plantation economies, reliance on coerced labor including enslaved Africans, and the pursuit of profit from agricultural cash crops like tobacco and sugar.
How did slavery emerge in the Americas?
Slavery took root in the Americas due to the demand for labor on plantations, the introduction of tobacco as a cash crop, and the transatlantic slave trade, which provided a workforce for exploitative agricultural practices.
How did racism emerge in the Americas?
Racism emerged as a means to justify the enslavement and exploitation of Africans, with societal and legal frameworks reinforcing racial hierarchies to prevent class unity among laborers.
How did capitalism come to America?
Capitalism took hold in America through resource exploitation, the establishment of trade networks, and the development of a wage labor economy that gradually replaced slave economies in various regions.