HIS 131 FINAL
1. Progressive Era: (late 1800s, early 1900s) Cities, industrialization, corporations, pollution, immigration; A New Middle Class; The Search for Order; Muckrakers; Municipal Reform; Theodore Roosevelt (Conservation, Food and Drug Administration), Public health and medical education
2. Jane Addams: Middle-class woman from Illinois; London: Toynbee Hall; Social work by settling in neighborhoods. An active for the settlement house movement which advocated for social services, labor and politics, and assimilation in the 1890s.She was also in the Garbage ladies of Chicago and 1898: Chicago appointed Addams first woman garbage inspector. In 1900 Addams and Florence Kelley mapped the neighborhood for better location and physical health.
3. Lillian Wald: Henry Street Settlement House, New York City, Founded in 1890. She focused on public health nursing.
4. Rebecca Lee Crumpler: born in 1831 in Christiana, Delaware, was a caring aunt and improved nursing. In 1860 she went to New England Female Medical College (first African American women to earn a medical degree) and in 1864 she published the Doctress of Medicine. She worked in the Freedmen’s Bureau who helped enslaved people with aid (Poverty, lack of resources, lack of connections).
5. National Medical Association: formed in 1895 by the American Medical Association who helped Black doctors and health professionals. Focused on four objectivates how to eliminate disparities in health and attain medical care for all, how to address the health care needs of a population that by 1912 exceeded 10 million, how to increase the number of minority physicians needed to adequately treat African Americans, and how to improve the overall health of the Black population
6. Flexner Report: In 1910 Abraham Flexner established a book with higher admission and graduation standards, protocols of mainstream science in teaching and research due too many medical schools, too many doctors which reduce number of medical schools from 155 to 3. Also increase prerequisites to enter medical training. Even so, closed all but two of the historically Black medical schools, limiting the number of black doctors and Black patients and legacies in the profession. It has led to Institutional requirements, Access to health care and 1954: Brown v. Board of Education.
7. Syphilis: Treponema pallidum; Skin ulcerations, rashes, neurological problems, heart symptoms; “the great imitator”. Bloodletting, laxative use, baths in wine; Stigmatization and artificial Noses, 1927: Malaria inoculation and 1928: Penicillin Syphilis in World War I- Control of disease and the war effort and Sex workers and leave time which lead to 1911: The Bureau of Social Hygiene and called for a public health problem during the Progressive era.
8. Sacramento Sweep: February 1919 with 22 women who clear out the homeless
9. Asylums: Quiet, secluded, peaceful country settings; Opportunities for meaningful work and recreation; The ideal of family life; A system of privileges and rewards for rational behavior; Gentler kinds of restraints used for shorter periods; The restoration of self-control; 1814: The Friends Asylum in Philadelphia, 1811: McLean Hospital in Boston, 1816: Bloomingdale Insane Asylum in Morningside Heights, Due to fund was under siege Economic considerations, turn to Nurses’ Training Schools, 1930s and 1940s: Economic and political considerations
10. Sigmund Freud: The importance of the unconscious; Early childhood experiences contributed to the development of adult personality and behavior and Freudian slips and dreams.
11. Behaviorism: A more psychological and scientific discipline based on observable behavior by Ivan Pavlov, Classical conditioning. James B. Watson: Behavior analysis and Behavioral modification
12. Psychoanalysis: Behavior is influenced by unconscious drives; Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and anxiety are rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious. Personality development is heavily influenced by the events of early childhood, People use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from information in the unconscious.
13. Sterilization: Dr. Harry Sharp did Sterilization of the “hereditarily defective” led to Early 1900s: Indiana Reformatory, 1907: Indiana Forced Sterilization Law focused on Involuntary sterilization of “confirmed criminals, idiots, imbeciles, and “rapists” and in 1907-1939: 30,000 people sterilized against their consent.
14. Carrie Buck: In 1906 Born in Charlottesville, Virginia, Foster parents John and Alice Dobbs. Buck Pregnant at 17 1924: The Virginia Colony for Epileptics and Feeble-Minded. Dr. Albert Priddy forced sterilization. Testing the case in the courts. An ideal case: “A middle-grade moron” and A teen mother which led to the case Buck v. Bell in 1927 (a 8-1 decision) which allows Virginia’s laws of sterilization
15. Reif Sisters: Minnie and Mary Alice in Montgomery, Alabama who were Physically and intellectually disabled. 1972 living in A shack and poor living conditions founded by social Worker Jessie Bly Government Assistance 1970s: Richard Nixon, the population bomb, Sterilized against their will, 1974: Relf v. Weinberger (National Attention)
16. Spanish Flu: during world war I Boston closed Fort Devens, Philadelphia parade in support of the war, New York City’s Columbus Day parade, No comment from Woodrow Wilson, second wave happens in July 1918. New York closed shops, San Francisco held court outside, Seol shut down, Manchester shut down schools (Proposed Cures: Sanitary Guidelines and Alcohol), Spain Closed Borders, Japan published leaflets, US Anti-Spitting Campaigns, Anti-Masking. End of the Virus Third wave Spring 1919: Wilson Contracts Flu in Peace Talks and Herd Immunity
17. Fort Riley: March 4, 1918: Cook falls ill, Midday: 100 soldiers sick, Fever, headache, cough by March 11 virus reached Queens, New York (start of the Spanish Flu).
18. U.S.S Leviathan: Captured from Germany, 1 death/hour
19. Tuskegee, Alabama: 1800s: Slavery and the cotton gin 1830: Indian Removal Act, known as The Plantation South, White citizens would suffer more neurological symptoms, Black brains ruled by more basic factors, Syphilis would impact African Americans’ cardiovascular system. 1932: The United States Public Health Service, 600 African American men recruited to study the full progression of the disease with the Promises of free medical care led to antibiotic penicillin 1973: Congressional Hearings 1974: $10 million out of court settlement 1997: Bill Clinton apologized and 2004: Final study participant passed away
20. Collective Memory: Racism and experimentation, Betrayals of trust and death, Anger, pain, guilt, shame, sorrow, apology Intentional duplicity, Professional and institutional problems, Physicians’ hubris
21. Cheryl Owens: Born and raised in Tuskegee, Registered nurse at Central Alabama, Veterans Health Care System, January 26, 2021: VA News opinion article to get the COVID vaccine.
22. Sulfa drugs: 1932: Bayer experimented with Prontosil Effective against strep, blood infections, childhood fever and Available to anyone, Late 1930s: hundreds of manufacturers produced sulfa, Saved the lives of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Winston Churchill Wound infections during World War II
23. Penicillin: 1928: Dr. Alexander Fleming discovered mold on a petri dish. The mold produced a self-defense chemical that killed bacteria, little interest from peers. 1937: Howard Florey and Ernst Chain uncovered the research, “The Penicillin Project”, 1940: Successful tests on mice, Peoria, Illinois: Scaling up production and World War II. Treats Syphilis, Skin infections, Dental infections, Ear infections
24. Polio: infectious disease mostly impacting young children affected the Spinal and respiratory paralysis/ Evidence in Ancient Egypt yet in 1916 epidemic in New York: 2000 people died and 1952: 3,000 deaths Lifelong consequences and 1950s: Jonas Salk created vaccine. 1953: Tested the virus on himself and his family. In 1954: 1.6 million children. Now Vaccines throughout the world
25. Medicare: Health insurance for the elderly. In 1945 Harry Truman’s special message to Congress, Opponents warned of the dangers of “socialized” medicine, but Members of the Social Security administration kept working Medicare and Medicaid. In 1950-1963: Aged population grew from 12 million to 17.5 million and 2/3 of older Americans had income with less than $1000 annually. Cost of hospital care was rising and in 1960: Private insurers no longer providing adequate coverage. Debates in Congress but in 1965: Medicare and Medicaid Act
26. Henrietta Lacks: Born in 1920 in Roanoke, Virginia Grew up with her maternal grandmother and a Tobacco farmer. In 1941: Moved to Maryland and by 1950 Gave birth to her fourth child at Johns Hopkins. In 1951: A knot in her cervix Several health concerns had gone unaddressed and diagnosed with cervical cancer led to 2 samples taken from her cervix without her permission 1 was cancerous and 1 was healthy known as the HeLa immortal cell line. In 1951 Lacks died.
27. HeLa Cells: 1953: Theodore Puck and Philip Marcus successfully cloned Lacks’ cells. The first immortal cell line and 60,000 scientific articles published on research with the cells. 1950s: Jonas Salk used HeLa while testing polio vaccine (polio education), 1960s: Soviet satellite Sputnik-6, HeLa cells divide more quickly in zero gravity, and insights on the molecular mechanics of SARS-CoV-2019. 1976: Discovered that HeLa cells could float on dust particles and spread, and Scientists tracked down the family. Henrietta’s husband has a 3rd grade education.
28. Rebecca Skloot: A 16-year-old in community college and A career in journalism. What ever happened to Henrietta and her kids? Henrietta’s daughter, Deborah, lives Clover, Virginia, and develops a relationship with her.
29. Bioethics: Ethical issues related to health, Moral discussions about medicine, primary care, and public health, Life sciences, medicine, politics, law, Debates over the boundaries of lifestyle. Abortion, euthanasia, Allocation of scarce health resources, Cloning and Gene therapy in late 1900s.
30. ACT UP: 1987: Lesbian and Gay Community Services Center. The AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power. In October: March on the United States Supreme Court building. International chapters formed. On March 24, 1987, Demonstration on Wall Street and Civil Disobedience. On April 15, 1987: United States Post Office Silence=Death. In 1991: “Day of Desperation”, Coffins to city, state, and local officials. Radically altered how the world viewed AIDS. Designing healthcare solutions for the population being treated, High quality care to the streets. Found shelter for unhoused and protected drug users through needle exchanges
31. ED Koch: Life-long Democrat, The city’s biggest cheerleader and life in the closet. In 1981 Took the Gay Men’s Health Crisis 21 months to get a meeting. Rejected proposals for needle exchanges and ignored overcrowded hospitals. In 1983: Office of Gay and Lesbian Health Concerns Uncoordinated response. In 1987: Minimal AIDS education in schools. 1985: Koch closed bathhouses and gay clubs
32. Harvey Milk: first openly gay man elected to public service in 1977: elected City Supervisor which Legislation banning discrimination
33. AZT: Early 1990s: Only 1 approved drug with terrible side effects and $10,000 per year ($25,700 today). Stock soared 40%. ACT UP called for a nationwide boycott “AIDS profiteer”. On September 14, 1989, 100,000th case of AIDS and More deaths than the Vietnam War. ACT UP chained themselves to Wall Street led to Price of AZT reduced to $6,400 per year.
34. Environmental Racism: Institutional racism, Landfills, incinerators, hazardous waste disproportionately placed in communities of color, Mining, oil extraction, industrial agriculture. Causes of Environmental Racism are Lack of affordable land, Lack of political power Lack of mobility, Poverty such as Cancer Alley, Louisiana. Reactions to Environmental Justice are 1960s: Cesar Chavez, 1967: Houston, 1968: West Harlem, and 1971: Michigan
35. Warren County: Poor, rural, overwhelmingly Black County. 1982: 6,000 truckloads of Polychlorinated biphenyls and Waste landfill in the small community of Afton. Mid-September 1982, dump trucks rolled in. 6 weeks of marches and nonviolent street protests followed and 500 arrests. 7,223 truckloads of waste brought to the 20-acre landfill
36. Cancer Alley: 85 mile stretch of land from Baton Rouge to New Orleans. 200 petrochemical plants and refineries. 25% of petrochemicals created in the United States. In 1987: Residents of Iberville Parish noticed an abundance of cancer cases. Predominantly African American population.
37. Childhood Asthma: Outdoor Environments: ozone, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter Indoor Environments: tobacco, mold, poor ventilation, water damage, heat irritants, chemical irritants, dust, pets, mites, cockroaches. New York City: Diesel Sources, West Harlem: Buses, South Bronx: Trucks
38. Young Lords: The Young Lords were a Puerto Rican nationalist and civil rights organization founded in the late 1960s. Initially inspired by the Black Panther Party, the group focused on addressing systemic issues affecting Puerto Rican and Latino communities, including poverty, racism, inadequate healthcare, and housing inequality. They became well-known for their bold tactics, such as occupying public spaces and institutions to draw attention to these issues.
39. Lincoln Hospital: Lincoln Hospital, located in the South Bronx, was central to the Young Lords' activism. In the early 1970s, the hospital was notorious for its poor conditions and substandard care, which primarily affected low-income Black and Puerto Rican communities. The Young Lords staged a dramatic takeover of the hospital to demand better healthcare services, improved sanitation, and community control over health resources. This event drew national attention to healthcare inequities in marginalized communities.
40. HRUM: The Health Revolutionary Unity Movement (HRUM) was an alliance of healthcare workers, community members, and activists, including the Young Lords. This group collaborated to advocate for systemic changes in healthcare, focusing on better services for underserved populations, particularly in the Bronx. HRUM was instrumental in organizing protests and actions, like the Lincoln Hospital takeover, to push for community-led healthcare reforms
41. Hay fever: The urban rural divide. Hay fever holidays. White mountains, Mackinac Island. Ragweed Spread of hay fever outside of cities
42. Ragweed: Spread of hay fever outside of cities
43. Inhalers: Built-in spacers 10s of millions of Americans to treat allergies
44. Antihistamines: treating allergies. Relief from congestion, sneezing, hives. Postwar military-industrial complex.
45. Snake Oil: A cure-all for physiological problems. Cocaine, amphetamine, alcohol, etc. Swindlers
46. Charles Pfizer: 1849: Charles Pfizer and Charles Erhardt. 1880: Citric acid Extended the shelf life of foods and beverages
47. Elizabeth Hughes: 1919: Elizabeth Hughes diagnosed with diabetes. Associate Justice Charles Hughes begged special privilege. No body of law to protect patients from abusive or fraudulent treatment. Died in 1981 at age 74. 42,000 insulin injections. Expunged all mention of her father and the drug
48. Insulin: 1921: Insulin extracted from beef or pork pancreas at the University of Toronto; Lowered blood pressure by 40%
49. Affordable Care Act: 2009: 45 million Americans were uninsured and Growing cost of medical care. In February 2009: Obama’s push for reform. Debates over the government’s role in healthcare. In 2010: Obama signed the law. Goals: Make health insurance available to more people, make health care cheaper, and Expand Medicaid. The Marketplace, Minimum standards for private insurance. In 2014: Individual mandate. Denied health insurance companies the right to refuse coverage or charge patients more based on preexisting conditions, allowed dependents to remain on parents’ health insurance until 26, Required insurance companies to cover preventive services
50. Opioid Crisis: Number of drug overdose deaths increased 16% from 2020-2021. 75% of 107,000 drug overdose deaths in 2021 involved an opioid. 3 waves of the crisis, 1990s: Increased prescribing of opioids, 2010: Increases in overdoses involving heroin and 2013: Increases in overdoses involving fentanyl. Overdose Data to Action: CDC funds health departments in 47 states. Monitoring trends, advancing research, building local capacity
51. Antibiotic Resistance: increases to drug-resistant strains. Antibiotics do not substitute public health, vaccinations, clean water, proper sanitation
52. Telepsychiatry: Telehealth, Access and equity, Continuity of care and follow up and Ease of use
53. Yellow Fever: Happened in early 1800s that affected Philadelphia, the capital during the that time. Localists believe rotten air and digesting was the cause. Others believed it was contagious and through contact. Both were right and wrong. 40-60% of the population were affected. Benjamin Rush believed black were immune to it; Absalom Jones disagreed. This was important because it led to a new capital, a slave trade (cotton and sugar started to rise), was the start of scientific racism, and led to the idea of germ theory and how diseases are spread.
54. Shoe Leather: Knocking doors and conducting interviews, drawing a map. Susana Heley (caused) found the issue to come the water sewage and lines. Lead to the social context of spread diseases and early public health. This approach became prominent in the early 20th century with public health workers and epidemiologists like John Snow, who famously tracked the source of a cholera outbreak in London in 1854.
55. Epidemiology:
56. Germ Theory: Late 1879 from chicken cholera, Louis Pasteur found stale cholera microbes and fresh cholera microbes. Led to rabies testing and vaccine and public health. It laid the foundation for antiseptic practices, vaccines, and antibiotics, leading to a dramatic decline in mortality rates from infectious diseases. It also paved the way for modern microbiology and epidemiology, shifting medical understanding toward evidence-based science. By identifying pathogens as causes of disease, scientists and physicians could develop targeted treatments, saving millions of lives.
57. J. Marion Sims: “father of modern gynecology” experiments on enslaves women: long hours surgeries, no anesthesia, believed they can hold more pain, no consent. Led to question of ethics and consent. He developed surgical techniques to treat vesicovaginal fistulas, a severe complication of childbirth. Sims performed his pioneering surgeries in the 1840s in Alabama. Sims made significant contributions to gynecological medicine, but his work is controversial because he experimented on enslaved Black women without anesthesia, raising ethical concerns about consent and exploitation in medical research. His legacy has prompted discussions about racism and ethics in medicine.
58. Phrenology: Franz Joesph Gall in 1810 wrote a book about reading skull shapes, Moral and Intellectual faculties are innate. The form of head represents form of brain. Phrenology is the pseudoscientific belief that the shape and size of the skull determine personality traits and mental abilities. Though debunked, phrenology influenced early neuroscience by emphasizing that different parts of the brain control specific functions. However, it also reinforced racial and social stereotypes, often being used to justify inequality and discrimination.
59. Smallpox: was a highly contagious and deadly viral disease characterized by fever and pustular rashes. Smallpox has existed for thousands of years, with notable outbreaks in the Americas following European colonization in the 16th century, devastating Indigenous populations. The development of the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner in 1796 marked the beginning of its control, and the disease was officially eradicated in 1980. Smallpox was one of the deadliest diseases in human history, causing millions of deaths. Its eradication through vaccination remains one of the greatest achievements in public health, demonstrating the power of global cooperation in disease prevention.
60. Humours: The theory posited that human health depended on the balance of four bodily fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. This theory dominated Western medicine for over 1,000 years. The theory originated in ancient Greece with Hippocrates (circa 400 BCE) and was later expanded by Galen in the Roman Empire. It persisted into the 17th century. The theory of humours shaped medical practice for centuries, influencing treatments such as bloodletting and purging. Its eventual rejection marked a major shift toward evidence-based medicine and the scientific method.
61. Prosthetics: artificial devices used to replace missing body parts, often resulting from injury, disease, or congenital conditions. Prosthetics date back to antiquity, but modern advancements began during and after the American Civil War (1861–1865), when demand increased due to wartime injuries. Prosthetics highlight the intersection of medicine, engineering, and rehabilitation. Advances in prosthetic technology have improved the quality of life for millions of people, showcasing the evolving role of science in addressing human disabilities.
62. Columbian Exchange: refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and cultures between the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia following Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the New World in 1492. This exchange drastically altered ecosystems, diets, and populations across continents. On the positive side, the introduction of crops like potatoes, tomatoes, and maize to Europe led to population growth and economic expansion. Livestock like horses and cattle transformed Native American cultures and economies. However, the exchange also brought devastating consequences, particularly for Indigenous populations in the Americas. Diseases such as smallpox decimated up to 90% of Native populations due to their lack of immunity. The exchange also intensified the transatlantic slave trade as labor demands increased for plantations producing sugar, tobacco, and other commodities.
63. Cotton Mather: a Puritan minister and writer in colonial New England known for his role in the Salem Witch Trials and his advocacy of smallpox inoculation. Mather promoted smallpox inoculation in 1721 during a Boston epidemic, despite widespread public opposition. Mather’s support for inoculation demonstrated early efforts to prevent disease through medical intervention. His work marked a turning point in American medicine, paving the way for the acceptance of vaccines.
64. Croton Aqueduct: was built to help supply water to NYC in 1837. One of the large and complex water system due to Cholera
65. Louis Pasteur: a 19th-century French scientist known for his groundbreaking work in microbiology, including the development of pasteurization and vaccines for rabies and anthrax. Pasteur’s major contributions occurred during the mid-to-late 1800s. Pasteur’s work on Germ Theory revolutionized medicine and agriculture. His discoveries laid the groundwork for vaccines, sterilization, and food safety practices, saving countless lives and transforming science and industry.
