History Study Notes: Colonialism, Rebellion, and the State

The Permanent Settlement ( $1793$ ): Established in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis; it fixed revenue demand in perpetuity to ensure a regular flow for the East India Company. Zamindars were classified as revenue collectors, not owners.
Failure and Default: Zamindars defaulted due to high initial demands, the Sunset Law (estates auctioned if revenue not paid by sunset of set date), and depressed agricultural prices in the $1790\text{s}$ . Over $75\%$ of zamindaris changed hands post- $1793$ .
Jotedars vs. Zamindars: Rich peasants known as Jotedars (also gantidars or mandals) consolidated power in villages, resisted zamindari revenue increases, and purchased auctioned estates.
Resistance Strategies: Zamindars used fictitious sales (benami purchases) and lathyals (strongmen) to prevent outsiders from taking possession of land.
The Fifth Report ( $1813$ ): A $1002$ -page document submitted to the British Parliament detailing E.I.C. administration, used to debate the Company's monopoly and alleged mismanagement.

The Paharias: Shifting cultivators in the Rajmahal hills using the "Hoe." They subsisted on forest produce (mahua, silk cocoons) and resisted the expansion of settled agriculture.
The Santhals: Invited by the British to reclaim land and settle the foothills. They represented the power of the "Plough." In $1832$ , a large territory was demarcated as Damin-i-Koh for Santhal settlement.
Santhal Revolt ( $1855-56$ ): Triggered by high state taxes, high interest rates by moneylenders (dikus), and zamindari control. Led by Sidhu Manjhi, it resulted in the creation of the Santhal Pargana ( $5,500\,\text{square miles}$ ).

Ryotwari System: Revenue was settled directly with the ryot (peasant). Revenue rates were high and subject to periodic resurvey every $30$ years (not permanent).
Agrarian Crisis: Debt mounted due to high revenue and falling agricultural prices after $1832$ , culminating in the famine of $1832-34$ .
Cotton Boom ( $1861-1865$ ): The American Civil War cut off British cotton supplies; India became the primary source. Credits flowed easily to ryots, but the crash of $1865$ led to a credit dry-up and increased debt.
Deccan Riots ( $1875$ ): Ryots in Supa and Poona attacked sahukars (moneylenders), burning debt bonds and account books (bahi khatas) in protest against insensitive exactions.

Outbreak: Began at Meerut on $10\text{ May }1857$ . Sepoys marched to Delhi and declared Bahadur Shah Zafar the symbolic leader.
Patterns of Rebellion: Targeted symbols of British rule (telegraph lines, treasuries, bungalows) and local oppressors (moneylenders).
Leadership: Key figures included Nana Sahib (Kanpur), Rani Lakshmi Bai (Jhansi), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow), Kunwar Singh (Bihar), and Shah Mal (Barout).
Annexation of Awadh ( $1856$ ): Lord Dalhousie described Awadh as "a cherry that will drop into our mouth." The dethronement of Wajid Ali Shah and the Summary Settlement of $1856$ dispossessed taluqdars, leading to widespread rural participation in the revolt.
Repression: The British used martial law and executed rebels (blowing from guns). Delhi was recaptured in September $1857$ .

Port Cities: Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay emerged as the new economic capitals. They were characterized by a divide between "White Town" (fortified European enclaves) and "Black Town" (service communities).
Hill Stations: Simla, Darjeeling, and Mount Abu were developed for military billeting and as health sanitariums (temperate climates).
Architectural Styles in Bombay:
- Neo-classical: Geometric structures with pillars (e.g., Town Hall).
- Neo-Gothic: High-pitched roofs and pointed arches (e.g., Victoria Terminus).
- Indo-Saracenic: Hybrid style using domes and arches (e.g., Gateway of India).

Early Satyagrahas: Gandhi returned in $1915$ ; led local struggles in Champaran ( $1917$ ), Kheda ( $1918$ ), and Ahmedabad ( $1918$ ).
Mass Movements: Non-Cooperation and Khilafat ( $1920-22$ ), Civil Disobedience and Dandi Salt March ( $1930$ ), and Quit India Movement ( $1942$ ).
Partition ( $1947$ ): Constitutional failure between the Congress and Muslim League (Direct Action Day: $16\text{ August }1946$ ) led to the division of India and Pakistan and massive communal violence.
Framing the Constitution: The Constituent Assembly met from $1946$ to $1949$ . Key contributors included B.R. Ambedkar (Drafting Committee Chairman), Jawaharlal Nehru (Objectives Resolution), and Vallabh Bhai Patel.

On Jotedars: Discuss why they were powerful in rural Bengal. They lived in villages, controlled local trade, and inhibited zamindari authority by mobilising ryots.
On Paharias vs. Santhals: Compare their livelihoods (hoe vs. plough) and responses to outsiders. Paharias withdrew to higher ranges whereas Santhals cleared forests for settled agriculture.
On Official Sources: Discuss the limitations of the Fifth Report and the Deccan Riots Commission. These records often reflect official biases and attempt to blame moneylenders rather than government revenue policy for peasant unrest.