beliefs notes

ideology & science

Belief system - framework of ideas & values through which people make sense of the world

Closed - an ideology or viewpoint is unchangeable & dismisses criticism

Open - the knowledge may grow, change, or adapt based on criticism or new discoveries

Ideology - makes knowledge claims: explanations of the world that should be taken as the truth

science

open

Popper - based on falsification (scientists trying to disprove theories) - makes it open to change & criticism

scientific knowledge is cumulative - grows & evolves over time, e.g. theidea that the earth was flat - replaced with evidence of a spherical earth

this openness makes science more reliable then religion - relies on blind faith & tradition

eval

closed

Kuhn - only accepts ideas that fit their paradigm (world view)

e.g. little green men - Cambridge researchers 1967 studying pulsating stars, labelled them as ‘little green man’ 1, 2 & so on, due to the childish label used their theory was dismissed

religion

Weber - science has gradually pushed out religion

Theological stage (Christianity): life & phenomena were explained through supernatural beings
Metaphysical stage (Calvinist’s): supernatural side was diminished, life & phenomena were explained through more natural forces, like the power of nature
Scientific stage (religion has been abandoned): previous stages were displaced by rational explanations based on evidence derived from reasoning

Argues this in his theory of the Protestant ethic & disenchantment

eval

religion has adapted, not vanished - postmodernists - religion has shifted from institutional religion → individualised belief (NAM’s)

closed

Horton - claims to offer absolute truth - cant be overturned by evidence or tested (like science) - any contradictory evidence is reinterpreted or dismissed

e.g. big bang

Polyani - religion protects themselves from criticism

Circular reasoning - beliefs justify themselves using internal logic, e.g. ‘the bible is true because it says so in the bible’
Subsidiary explanations - when challenged new reasons are created to maintain belief
Denial of legitimacy - opposing worldviews are rejected

religion is being replaced:

~ followers may feel their genuine questions about existance cannot be addressed

religion is not being replaced:

~ offers certainty & community in times of rapid social change

~ use to find identity in an age of individualism

open

marxism

all ideologies are a tool of the bourgeosie to maintain power & reproduce class inequality by justifying the principles of capitalism → creates false class consciousness → prevents revolution

religion - promises eventual escape & gives hope for a better place - presents inequalities as god-given, e.g. divine right of kings
science - advancements & discoveries are motivated by generating mass profit - AI

eval

neo-marxists - wc can develop ideas that challenge this - counter hegemony, e.g. miners strikes 1969, 72, 84

feminism

ideologies have promoted the patriarchy for generations

Oakley - Bowlby’s study of material dep (childs development is damaged by working mothers) has been used to justify gender inequality in the workplace & reinforces the idea of the housewife

eval

holds a western & generalised view of science & religion, not all beliefs reinforces patriarchy - hijab seen as liberating

func

Durkheim - ideologies serve to unite members of society (social glue), promote shared values & maintain social order

religion - fosters a ‘collective consciousness’ through religious rituals & symbols - sense of belonging, reinforces a moral code that guides behaviour

science - developing tech, medicine, knowledge- instrumental in improving standards of living & increases efficiency

eval

rose-tinted - ignores how ideologies can be divisive & a tool for control over certain groups like women, wc

globalisation

interconnectedness of the world

fundementalism - return to the literal interpretation of religious texts & traditions

key features: authoritative text, patriarchy, use of modern text, aggressive reaction, us v them mentality

e.g. westboro baptist church

Davie & Giddens - fundamentalism is a reaction to globalisation & the uncertainty it brings, people feel threatened by it & turn to religion since they feel a need to defend themselves against it

threats: rapid social change, growth of science, increase of choice, loss of tradition, exposure to different lifestyles, beliefs, values

NAM’s cause an increase in fundamentalism - obligation is replaced by choice (Davie) individuals no longer feel the need to follow religious teachings - religion has become a marketplace where churches have to compete with spiritual alternatives

since traditional religions have lost influence they are on the defence

criticism - Beckford - ignore the positives globalisation has on religion, e.g. increased choice

Bruce - cultural defence - religion is used to unite a community & act as a symbol for the groups collective identity in defence of its culture, language, identity under threat of pressure from external global threat, e.g. Poland & Soviet Union
Weber - religion has created the right mindset for capitalism to grow in the west & religion would become less important as society modernised
Nanda - in india hinduism remains central in their lives as the country became wealthier & more connected to the global economy - religion adapted to capitalism - political policies & the media promotes the idea that india’s global strength comes from its hindu culture which ties religion to national pride

renewal & choice

postmodernists - religion is not disappearing it’s changing & becoming more individualisted, flexible, & consumer based

Davie

obligation to consumption - in traditional societies religion was a social obligation expected by family & the community, now this has shifted to consumption - individuals now choose if they want to be religious, decide how they want to practice, engage only when it suits their needs

religion now operated like a marketplace - select what we want without committing fully - due to greater religious diversity, individualism, declining authority of religion

consequence - religious institutions must adapt to survive - become more flexible & appealing to consumers - Vatican runs summer caps

vicarious religion - situations where a small group of active believers practice religion on behalf of a much larger group of people - churches act as a spiritual health service (used when needed)

even those who rarely attend church have religious weddings, get baptised, expect a religious funeral

Lyon - spiritual shopping - rather than following one religion individuals in postmodern society ‘pick & mix’ their beliefs, combining lifestyle & wellbeing, e,g, wellness tourism
Heelas & Woodhead - kendal project - study on whether spiritual beliefs & practices were replacing traditional churchgoing

holistic milieu - growing - promotes & focuses on individuals rather than obeying an external authority

Stark & Brainridge - religious market theory - religion is like a product, people are spiritual consumers looking for the best fit

when there is a state monopoly (europe) religion declines, where there is religious comp (america) it flourishes, e.g. evangelism

criticism - increased choice doesnt always mean increased participation, many may choose no religion

Norris & Inglehart - religon is the strongest in societies where people face high levels of insecurity, uncertainty, risk - when people are vulnerable religion provides comfort, meaning, hope

america - more unequal, inadequate welfare support, dog-eat-dog mentality → high levels of insecurity → turn to religion

europe - more equal, secure with well developed welfare states

eval

good for explaining patterns of belief & non-belief

some poor societies are not highly religious

social change

Weber - protestant ethic & spirit of capitalism - the protestant reformations emphasis on individual responsibility, thriftiness, the pursuit of success created an environment conductive to the grwoth of capitalism work ethic encouraged people to view their success as gods favour

normative conditions - confessions

criticism - cant explain why calvinist countries such as norway did not experience industrialisation at the same time

Bruce - the black clergy was the backbone of the civil rights movement by providing meeting places that could channel political dissent & act as a sanctuary away from the threat of white violence - achieved aims by shaming thsoe in power

westboro baptist church -movement failed because they didnt work well with others due to their hateful message & aggressive reactions

neo-marxists

Althusser - relative autonomy - the superstructures of society have some freedom to support wc rather than rc
Gramsci - religion has duel character, prevents & inspires change, it exercises counter hegemony at times where demand for support is high, e.g. militant miners strikes 1930’s

theories

conservative force - upholds & maintains the norms of society

func

Durkheim - social glue - religious ceremonies & practices bind people together

supernatual dimensions of religion will eventually disappear as society progresses & be replaced by civil religions that perform the same functions, e.g. football

Parsons - shapes core values & becomes embedded into society through socialisation - beliefs of believers & non-believers are influenced (most follow the same moral code) - E.g. rules against killing, stealing become part of our shared sense of right & wrong, when people break these rules they often feel guilty no matter what they believe, guilt acts as a form of social control
Malinowski - security blanket - helps people deal with emotional stress caused by events (death) that create anxiety & threaten social solidarity by offering comfort (funerals) to help them emotionally adjust (mechanism of adjustment)

e.g. Manchester bombings

eval

overlooks how religion can casue conflict

many rely on non-religious coping mechanisms

marxism

marx - ‘it is the opium of the people’ - ideological illusion created by b to maintain capitalism & prevent revolution - presents inequalities as god-given making p’s low position seem natural & unchangeable - cant be questioned without questioning the authority of god

Lenin - ‘spiritual gin’ - tool to intoxicate the masses keeping them passive - distracts wc from their exploitation, e.g. divine right of kings

eval

some truth - 80% of CoFE bishops are oxbridge educated - they are the elite

ignores those who challenge the rc through religion

fem

Davie - analysed sacred texts & their depictions of women - portrayed as submissive - mainly appear to reinforce good & bad female behaviour

virgin mary - innocence, motherly role, pure

temptress eve - ruined humanity, manipulative

‘wives be subject to your husband. for the husband is the head of the wife’

De Beauvoir - men control & organise religion & use it to justify their dominance over women - control e.g. veiling

decieve women into thinking they are equal to men by compensating them for their second class position, e.g. the role of mother is given divine status

Armstrong - decline of the goddess

prehistoric - worshiped male & female godss

as societies transitioned to settled farming male gods became associated with the authority needed to maintain agricultural societies → monotheism

eval

woodhead - western feminists fail to see how religious practices can be symbols of liberation - hijab

secularisation

Wilson - religious thinking, practices, institutions lose social significance

reasons

science

Bruce - the growth of scientific exolinations for why things happen & application of tech has undermined religious beliefs → become marginalised, only to be used as a last resort, e.g. times of illness
Weber - disenchantment

premodern societies - enchantment was common, people gave meaning to various natural & social phenomena through religious beliefs

modern societies - rise of science led to a shift towards a more rational & predictable understanding of the world

diversity

Berger - sacred canopy (shared set of beliefs) - catholic church use to hold a monopoly of truth with no competition → sc → gave those beliefs greater plausibility structure because they went unquestioned

globalisation → increase in religious diversity with all different variations of the truth - challenges catholic church - creates a plurality of life worlds where people feel lost & confused as to what they should believe

criticism - Berger - diversity & choice can stimulate increased interest & participation in religion - the growth of NAM’s, cults, sects shows a growing demand for religion

institutional

Parsons - structural differentiation - religious institutions have disengaged & withdrawn from society

past - churches were the focal point for family life, education, hc, making them fundamental to most peoples lives

now - introduced specialised institutions that have taken over those functions, e.g. NHS, care homes, state schools

Herberg - secularisation from within - in order to survive in a secular society religious institutions have moved away from traditional doctrines & have watered down their beliefs - too weak to set trends have to follow them - become less religous - acceptence of same-sex marriage, divorce
Lyon - disneyfication of religion - The transformation of something into a diluted version of its original form to create an attractive product

Harvest day disneyland - enabled people to interact with the artificial fantacy world of disney land with christian performers & figures replacing other attractions - this blend of dof religion & consumerism makes religion into a packaged commodity & creates shallow superficial spirituality

eval (overall)

believing without belonging - declining church attendance does not mean a decline in religious beliefs but a search for more immediate & personal religious experiences