🇪🇺 AP EURO - Unit 4.2 (Scientific Revolution)

Danish astronomer known for precise and comprehensive astronomical observations.
Supported by the Danish King, he established Uraniborg, an advanced observatory, enabling highly accurate naked-eye measurements of planetary positions, particularly Mars.
His meticulous data collection was unprecedented in its accuracy for the time.
Advocated for geo-heliocentrism, a Tychonic model where planets, excluding Earth, orbit the Sun, but the Sun itself orbits the Earth, a compromise between Ptolemaic and Copernican systems.

German mathematician and astronomer, who became an assistant to Tycho Brahe in Prague.
Inherited Brahe's comprehensive astronomical data after his mentor's death.
Used Brahe's data to rigorously derive three laws of planetary motion, abandoning the traditional idea of perfect circular orbits:
- 1st Law (Law of Ellipses): Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
- 2nd Law (Law of Equal Areas): A line connecting a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time, implying planets move faster when closer to the Sun.
- 3rd Law (Law of Harmonies): The square of a planet's orbital period ( $T$ ) is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis ( $a$ ) of its orbit ( $T^2 \propto a^3$ ). This law describes the relationship between the orbital period and the size of the orbit.

Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer, often called the "father of observational astronomy" and modern physics.
Significantly improved the telescope's design and magnifying power, which he then used for groundbreaking astronomical discoveries.
His telescopic observations, published in "Sidereus Nuncius" (Starry Messenger), included:
- The phases of Venus, which supported the heliocentric model over the geocentric.
- The four largest moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto), demonstrating that not everything orbited Earth.
- Sunspots, challenging the notion of a perfect and unblemished celestial sphere.
- The rugged, mountainous surface of the Moon, contrary to the Aristotelian view of a perfectly smooth celestial body.
Strongly advocated for heliocentrism, supporting Copernicus's model, which led to a famous conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, culminating in his trial and house arrest.
Pioneered experimental methods in physics, conducting experiments on motion, falling bodies, and inertia, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics.

Lawyer and government official in England.
Developed the concept of empiricism, foundational to the scientific method, emphasizing observation and experimentation.
Advocated critical thinking and inductive reasoning over reliance on abstract philosophy or church dogma.

French philosopher, known for the method of deduction: problem-solving through logical reasoning and mathematics.
Emphasized the importance of math and logic in finding indubitable solutions to scientific problems, particularly with his phrase "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).
Criticized past methods of inquiry as being influenced by tradition and the church, advocating for a fresh start based on doubt.

Key figure in the Scientific Revolution.
Formulated the law of universal gravitation, explaining motion and forces in both celestial and terrestrial contexts through precise mathematical laws.
Invented calculus (independently of Leibniz) to solve complex problems in physics and astronomy.
Introduced three laws of motion, which form the basis of classical mechanics:
- 1st Law (Inertia): Objects in motion stay in motion with constant velocity and objects at rest stay at rest unless acted upon by an external net force.
- 2nd Law (Force and Acceleration): The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass ( $F = ma$ ).
- 3rd Law (Action-Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Move from reliance on ancient texts and animal anatomy to direct observation and understanding of human anatomy.
Andreas Vesalius conducted live anatomical experiments and detailed dissections (like those published in "De humani corporis fabrica") to improve knowledge of the human body.
William Harvey advanced understanding of blood circulation, proposing that the heart pumps blood through a closed circulatory system.

Women, particularly of higher classes and those associated with noble courts, engaged in scientific discourse and patronage.
Notable women included Christina of Sweden who actively facilitated scientific discussion and supported scientists like Descartes.

Establishment of the scientific method as the primary approach to scientific inquiry, emphasizing systematic observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning.
Increase in universities and scientific academies focusing on science and mathematics, fostering a new intellectual environment.
Introduction of the concept of natural laws, suggesting that the universe operates according to understandable and predictable principles, impacting philosophy and governance.