Foreign Affairs

American imperialism

• The 1890s marked a shift in the concept of American Imperialism.

  • The ending of the frontier meant that expansionist notions now needed to be concentrated elsewhere.

  • This period in time is described as New Imperialism.

  • This was influenced by a panic in 1893 which was caused by a British bank and led the US into a horrible economic depression.

• Compared to the Brits and the French, Americans were more concerned with acquiring small land that provide strategic opportunities and limit the strategic of rival nations.

• The primary methods of imperialism are military conquest and political diplomacy.

• The spread of American values was still seen as a moral responsibility so this now led to expansion of American territory overseas.

• American imperialism was also based on the idea of naval power: the idea that a strong navy would secure America’s standing in the world.

  • They used their acquired territory to create naval coaling stations and to protect American power in the pacific.

• Businesses were now seeking markets overseas to sell their goods and make profit.

  • Industry and trade were considered to be the most prevalent justifications for colonialism.

• There were major disagreements between politicians who supported American expansionism and those who supported American isolationism.

• Despite opposition, 1890 to 1912 saw increasing American involvement in foreign affairs. War with Spain and more significant American influence in Cuba and the Pacific region, notably the Philippines, caused controversy.

• The First World War ended American isolationism and American neutrality once and for all.

• There are different types of imperialism: economic, political and cultural.

  • The United States wanted to gain economic influence, media influence, military influence and cultural influence.

Spanish-American War

• The Spanish American War was a short yet incredibly significant conflict between the US and Spain that confirmed America’s position as a global military power and marked the beginning of American imperialism overseas.

• The war was popular with the American press and the general public.

  • The yellow press, most notably outlets by William Randolph Hearst, encouraged American participation.

• The war ended with the American victory which led to the USA acquiring new colonies in Asia and stronger control over Cuba.

  • As a result of this, Theodore Roosevelt was considered a public hero which had an effect on his political career and election to the Presidency.

    • Roosevelt claimed he rejected imperialism, but he accepted expansionism.

The Yellow Press

• Yellow Press is a term that refers to journalism that uses eye-catching, sensationalist headlines over legitimate, researched stories.

• William Randolph Hearst was a media mogul and owned several newspapers.

• Newspapers were the primary source of journalism at the time and people believed almost everything they read.

  • This is why sensationalist headlines had such an impact on public opinion in America.

• The USA claimed to colonise in the name of anti-colonialism.

Cuba

• The context for the war with Spain in 1898 was American support of the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain.

  • William McKinley said that Spain should get out of Cuba or be prepared for war with America.

    • In his declaration of war, McKinley stated the war was about economic uncertainty and American peace of mind. He did not say it was about acquiring overseas territories, but rather emphasized the moral obligation to support the Cuban people in their fight against oppression.

• The rebels, led by Jose Marti, were dealt with harshly by Spain, and sensationalist media reports in American newspapers whipped up public outrage and led to calls for the government to take action against Spain, ultimately contributing to the onset of the Spanish-American War.

• In addition, there were concerns about protecting American economic interests in Cuba.

  • Cuba was an important trading partner for the USA.

  • There was a great deal of US investment in the island.

  • Cuba is only 90 miles (145 km) away from the American mainland.

    • This meant it was in the interest of American national security to promote stability and a friendly regime on the island.

• President William McKinley sent the USS Maine to Havana to protect American interests, but in February 1898 the ship exploded and sank.

  • At the time, they thought it was blown up by a Spanish mine.

    • Much later, however, it was found out that it was most likely caused by an internal fire.

• The terms agreed on in the Treaty of Paris secured Cuba’s independence from Spain.

  • Yet, it remained under the American military rule.

    • American interest in Cuba was secured by the Platt Agreement of 1901.

      • The Platt Agreement placed limits on Cuban power and many Cubans viewed it as an infringement on Cuban sovereignty.

        • Under the terms of the amendment, Cuba could not transfer Cuban land to any other power and its rights to negotiate treaties were limited.

        • America gained the rights to Guantanamo Bay, an important naval base in Cuba and U.S. intervention in Cuba was permitted if it was in the interests of preserving Cuban independence,

The Phillipines

• The war with Spain was also fought in the Pacific, beginning in May 1898 when a US naval squadron destroyed a Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in the Philippines, culminating in August with the occupation of Manila by US troops.

• Relations between Americans and Filipino rebels, who had initially fought side by side against the Spanish, began to deteriorate as it became clear that the US had no intention of allowing the Philippines to become independent.

Hawai’i

• United States interest in Hawai’i began in the 1800s when America became concerned that Great Britain or France might have colonial interest in Hawai’i.

  • In 1849 the Kingdom of Hawai’i and the United States signed a treaty of friendship removing any colonial ambitions from France and Great Britain.

• Hawai’i was used as a supply for sugar. Sugar was grown on American-owned plantations.

  • This sugar was exempt from tariffs.

• The war with Spain was also used to justify the annexation of the independent state of Hawai'i

• Americans created the naval base Pearl Harbor in Hawai’i.

• American businessmen based in Hawaii led a coup against Queen Lili'uokalani and established a new government in 1893.

  • However, President Cleveland rejected their idea to annex Hawai’i then.

• In 1893, the American public and President McKinley supported the annexation of Hawai’i.

  • It was argued that the island was vital to American economic interests and would also serve as a base to protect American interests in Asia.

• Hawai’i became a US territory in August 1898.

  • It became an American state in 1959, officially becoming the 50th US-States.

• The year 1898 was a turning point in America’s relationship with the rest of the world, as there could now be no doubt that America had become an imperial power extending its influence in the Caribbean and Asia

The Anti-Imperialist League

• The decision not to grant the Philippines independence caused a considerable backlash in the US.

  • Prior to this, a small group of writers and intellectuals were voicing concerns about America’s colonial policy.

• The events in the Philippines legitimised these concerns and even turned people who had previously supported the war against American imperialist actions.

• By November 1898, the Anti-Imperialist League had begun its work of spreading the anti-imperialist message arguing that imperialism was in direct contention with Republicanism, a principle upon which the United States had been founded

• They argued that no nation had the right to annex another without the consent of the government as this would violate the principles of democracy. For those in the League, there was a deep discomfort with the idea of quashing a movement for independence when America’s own identity was based upon the resistance of colonial subjugation and a fight for independence against an imperial power.

• The idea of the white man’s burden was that the white race had a moral duty to conquer other nations and civilise them.

  • While this idea was undoubtably racist, at the time, the idea led to widespread support for imperialism and colonialism as an educating and civilising mission.

  • However, even at the time, people were critical of this idea such as those in the Anti-Imperialist League.

    • The Anti-Imperialist League argued that there was no noble justification for the war in the Philippines which was solely based on the pursuit of military power and commercial greed.

    • They argued that the USA had racial inequality at home and it was hypocritical of the USA to claim they were involved in a moral project abroad.

The Panama Canal

• Americans first wanted to build a canal through Central America, but decided to build it in Panama instead.

• The Panama Canal opened for business in 1914, but it was decades in the making and eventually got off the ground because of the ambitions of Theodore Roosevelt.

• France had attempted to build a canal in the region in the 1880s, but their attempts failed spectacularly, and the project was abandoned in 1888.

• Roosevelt saw the commercial and military potential of the canal and wanted to protect American interests in the Pacific region and maintain its traditional relationship across the Atlantic.

• The Panama Canal for transporting things between the Atlantic and Pacific on ships.

  • This is important for the Navy.