Civil Rights and Social Protest Groups
Protest Movements
Protest movements are a significant way people express disagreement or advocate for change.
They explore various methods used by civil rights and social movements.
Effectiveness of protests depends on the extent to which they engage with societal issues and foster inclusivity.
Approaches to Learning (ATL) Skills
ATL skills are valuable for understanding and participating in protest movements.
Collaboration skills.
Critical-thinking skills.
Information literacy skills.
Civil Rights Movement in the USA and Apartheid in South Africa
This chapter examines the fight for civil rights in the USA and against apartheid in South Africa.
It encourages reflection on similarities and differences between the two protest movements regarding protest nature and reasons for success.
The Song "Strange Fruit" by Billie Holiday
The song by Billie Holiday is about lynching in the South.
The lyrics use powerful imagery to depict the horror and brutality of racial violence.
"Southern trees bear strange fruit, Blood on the leaves and blood at the root."
"Black bodies swinging in the southern breeze, Strange fruit hanging from the poplar trees."
Segregation in the Southern States
Segregation was enforced through Jim Crow laws, which mandated separate facilities for black people.
These laws covered various aspects of life, including restrooms, clinics, and schools.
Figure 11.3 illustrates signs enforcing segregation.
Jim Crow Laws
Jim Crow laws were named after a white entertainer who performed a song and dance act based on a slave character.
These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination in the Southern states.
The US Constitution and Segregation
Although the US Constitution theoretically provided equal rights, states passed discriminatory laws.
The Supreme Court ruling in Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) allowed segregation if facilities were "separate but equal".
In reality, facilities for Blacks were vastly inferior.
Voting Rights
Blacks were prevented from voting through various measures, including literacy tests and intimidation.
These tests included difficult reading passages and questions about American history, such as naming all Vice Presidents and Supreme Court Justices.
Violence and threats backed up these measures, risking jobs, homes, and lives for those who defied Jim Crow laws.
NAACP and CORE
NAACP (The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was set up in 1909 by a group of leading black intellectuals.
Aim: to ensure the political, educational, social and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination'.
It used legal means to achieve equality.
CORE (the Congress of Racial Equality) was established in 1942 and was inspired by the non-violent tactics of Mahatma Gandhi in India.
It encouraged tactics such as 'sit-ins' in restaurants.
Both NAACP and CORE raised awareness of discrimination issues in both black and white communities' and membership of both organizations grew after the SecondWorldWar.
White Supremacist Groups
White supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan used violence and intimidation against black people and civil rights activists.
They aimed to maintain white supremacy and enforce racial segregation.
Little Rock High School Integration
In 1957, Little Rock High School in Arkansas decided to allow nine black students to attend, leading to a crisis.
The governor, Orval Faubus, ordered the National Guard to block the students' entry.
President Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect the students amid press and television coverage.
Figure 11.5 shows Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957.
Eisenhower's Actions
Eisenhower's intervention was a test the Supreme Court ruling and of the government's commitment to see that it was enforced.
Montgomery Bus Boycott
The Montgomery Bus Boycott was sparked by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat on a bus in 1955.
Black people organized a boycott of the bus system, which lasted for 381 days.
The Supreme Court eventually ruled that segregation on buses was unconstitutional, following the Browder vs. Gayle case.
Figure 11.6 illustrates the successful bus boycott against segregation.
Martin Luther King Jr.
Martin Luther King Jr. was a key leader in the civil rights movement, advocating for non-violent resistance.
He founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to advance civil rights.
The slogan was, 'We won't ride today, but with dignity, we will ride tomorrow'.
Sit-ins
Sit-ins were another form of direct action, where protesters sat at segregated lunch counters.
In 1960, four black students sat at a Whites-only counter in Woolworths in Greensboro, leading to widespread sit-ins.
Within 18 months, 70,000 people participated, and 3,000 were arrested.
Freedom Riders
Freedom Riders challenged segregation on interstate buses in 1961.
They faced violence and opposition, but their actions led to the desegregation of bus stations.
Birmingham Campaign
In 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. targeted Birmingham, Alabama, for desegregation efforts.
Police Chief Bull Connor used brutal tactics against peaceful protesters, including water hoses and dogs.
These events were televised, leading to widespread condemnation.
Figure 11.9 shows civil rights protesters being attacked with water hoses in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963.
Martin Luther King's Response
Martin Luther King responded to critics accusing him of stirring up violence deliberately: 'lnstead of submitting to surreptitious cruelty in thousands of dark jail cells and on countless shadowed streets we are forcing our oppressor to commit his brutality openly - in the light of day - with the rest of the world looking on.
'To condemn peaceful protesters on the grounds that they provide violence is like condemning a robbed man because his possession of money caused the robbery.'
March on Washington
The March on Washington in 1963 was a significant event in the civil rights movement.
Over 250,000 people participated, and Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.
Figure 11.10 shows Martin Luther King Jr. delivering his speech.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Despite opposition, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed through the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
The Act banned discrimination in education, housing, and employment.
Freedom Summer
CORE, SNCC, and NAACP organized Freedom Summer to register black voters in the South.
This effort faced resistance and violence.
Selma to Montgomery March
To address voting rights, King organized a march from Selma to Montgomery.
Protesters faced violence on "Bloody Sunday," leading to increased pressure for voting rights legislation.
Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam
Malcolm X advocated for black separatism and empowerment.
His views differed from King's non-violent approach.
Figure 11.11 shows Malcolm X.
Malcolm X quotes: "The government of America is responsible for the oppression and exploitation of black people in this country" ; "lf we don't get to cast the ballot, then we're going to have to cast a bullet." ; "I am for violence if non-violence means we continue postponing a solution to the American black man's problems. If we must use violence to get the black man his human rights in this country then I am for violence" ; "The white man has taught the black people in this country to hate themselves as inferior; to hate each other; to be divided against each other. The brainwashed black man can never learn to stand on his own two feet until he is on his own ."
Black Power Movement
The Black Power movement emphasized black pride, self-determination, and sometimes revolutionary action.
Stokely Carmichael
Figure 11.12 shows Black Power salute of Tommie Smith and John Carlos at the 1968 Olympics.
The term 'black power' was first used by Stokely Carmichael' He was leader of the SNCC, which became more radical following his election as chairman.
The Nation of Islam' as well as CORE and the Black Panthers, all supported the idea of increasing the power of black people in American life.
Black Panthers
The Black Panthers, set up in 1966 by Huey Newton andBobby Seale, promoted revolutionary means to achieve their aims of equality'.
They gained much publicity as they wore striking uniforms of black berets' sunglasses and black leather jackets and were trained to use weapons.
Impact and Assessment
Historians assess the civil rights movement's success based on political and social changes.
The movement faced criticism and challenges, despite achievements in desegregation and legislation.
Vietnam War
Martin Luther King Jr. gained much publicity and increased support with his opposition to the vietnam war.
He pointed out America's hypocrisy fighting for equality and freedom abroad when that was not the case at home.