Carbon Chemistry and Macromolecules Flashcards

Carbon - The Backbone of Life

• Living organisms are primarily composed of carbon-based compounds.
• Carbon's bonding structure allows it to form large, diverse molecules, including proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Organic Chemistry

• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.
• Organic compounds consist of at least carbon and hydrogen.

Carbon Atom Diversity

• Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms.
• Carbon has four valence electrons, allowing it to form four covalent bonds.
• This capability enables the creation of both simple and complex molecules.

Shapes Created in Carbon Bonding

• Methane: $CH_4$
• Ethane: $C<em>2H</em>6$
• Ethene (ethylene): $C<em>2H</em>4$

Frequent Bonding Partners

• Carbon frequently bonds with:
  • Hydrogen (valence = 1)
  • Oxygen (valence = 2)
  • Nitrogen (valence = 3)
  • Carbon (valence = 4)

Urea Example

• Urea's molecular structure showcases carbon bonding with oxygen and nitrogen.
• $O=C(NH<em>2)</em>2$

Molecular Diversity

• Carbon chains form the skeletons of organic molecules.
• These skeletons vary in shape by length, branching, bond position, and ring formation.
• Examples include:
  • Ethane: $H<em>3C-CH</em>3$
  • Propane: $H<em>3C-CH</em>2-CH_3$
  • Butane: $H<em>3C-CH</em>2-CH<em>2-CH</em>3$
  • 2-methylpropane (isobutane): $(CH<em>3)</em>3CH$
  • 1-butene: $CH<em>2=CH-CH</em>2-CH_3$
  • 2-butene: $CH<em>3-CH=CH-CH</em>3$
  • Cyclohexane: $(CH<em>2)</em>6$
  • Benzene: $C<em>6H</em>6$

Hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen.
• They store energy.
• Lipids contain hydrocarbon components.

Isomers

• Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structures and properties.
  • Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of atoms.
  • Cis-trans isomers have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements (geometric isomers).
  • Enantiomers are mirror images of each other (stereoisomers).

Structural Isomers Example

• Example: Pentane and its isomers.

Cis-Trans Isomers

• cis isomer: The two Xs are on the same side.
• trans isomer: The two Xs are on opposite sides.

Enantiomers

• Enantiomers are mirror images of each other.
• Example: L-isomer and D-isomer of a molecule.

Drug Effectiveness and Enantiomers

• Different enantiomers of a drug may have different effects.
  • Ibuprofen: S-Ibuprofen is effective for pain and inflammation, while R-Ibuprofen is ineffective.
  • Albuterol: R-Albuterol is effective for asthma, while S-Albuterol is less effective.

Functional Groups

• Functional groups are components most commonly involved in chemical reactions.
• The number and arrangement of functional groups give molecules unique properties.

Functional Groups Example

• The arrangement of functional groups affects the shape and function of molecules like estradiol and testosterone.

Hydroxyl Group

• Structure: -OH
• Example: Ethanol
• Properties:
  • Polar due to electronegative oxygen atom.
  • Forms hydrogen bonds with water, helping dissolve organic compounds.

Carbonyl Group

• Structure: >C=O
• Ketones: If the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton (e.g., Acetone).
• Aldehydes: If it is at the end of the carbon skeleton (e.g., Propanal).
• Properties:
  • Ketones and aldehydes may be structural isomers with different properties.
  • Found in sugars: ketoses and aldoses.

Carboxyl Group

• Structure: -COOH
• Example: Acetic acid
• Properties:
  • Acts as an acid; can donate a $H^+$
  • Nonionized: -COOH
  • Ionized: -COO^-

Amino Group

• Structure: -NH2
• Example: Glycine
• Properties:
  • Acts as a base; can pick up a $H^+$
  • Nonionized: -NH2
  • Ionized: -NH3^+

Sulfhydryl Group

• Structure: -SH
• Example: Cysteine
• Properties:
  • Two sulfhydryl groups can react, forming a covalent bond (cross-linking) that helps stabilize protein structure.
  • Cross-linking of cysteines in hair proteins maintains curliness or straightness.

Phosphate Group

• Structure: -OPO3^2-
• Example: Glycerol phosphate
• Properties:
  • Molecules containing phosphate groups can react with water, releasing energy.

Methyl Group

• Structure: -CH3
• Example: 5-Methyl cytidine
• Properties:
  • Addition of a methyl group to DNA affects gene expression.
  • Arrangement of methyl groups in sex hormones affects their shape and function.

ATP: Energy Source

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy-transferring molecule in cells.
• It consists of adenosine attached to three phosphate groups.
• ATP reacts with water to form ADP (adenosine diphosphate), inorganic phosphate, and energy.
• $ATP + H<em>2O \rightarrow ADP + P</em>i + Energy$

Concept Check 1

• Enrichment: Carbon chemistry video.

Molecules of Life Overview

• Living things have four classes of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• Molecular structure and function are inseparable.

Macromolecules and Polymers

• Polymers are long molecules consisting of many similar building blocks (monomers).

Polymer Classes

• Three of the four classes of macromolecules are polymers:
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic acids

Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis

• Dehydration synthesis bonds monomers by removing a water molecule (anabolic reaction).
• Hydrolysis breaks down polymers by adding water (catabolic reaction).

Dehydration Reaction

• Dehydration removes a water molecule, forming a new bond.

Hydrolysis

• Hydrolysis adds a water molecule, breaking a bond.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building materials.
• They include sugars and sugar polymers (