GST 111.2

Study Session 2: The Sounds of English

Introduction

This study session discusses the essential elements of speaking, focusing on the organs of speech and the sounds produced in English. Mastery of these foundational aspects of communication is crucial for learning accurate pronunciation. Learners are encouraged to study the materials comprehensively, attempt all in-text questions, and participate in related assignments to ensure a thorough understanding of the concepts presented.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2

At the end of this study session, students should be able to:

  • 2.1 Identify the organs of speech and their locations in the human body (SAQ2.1)

  • 2.2 Relate the organs with their functions (SAQ2.2)

  • 2.3 Pronounce English vowels and consonants (SAQ2.3)

  • 2.4 Recognize the symbols representing individual English vowels and consonants (SAQ2.4)

  • 2.5 Transcribe monosyllabic English words (SAQ2.5).

2.1 The Organs of Speech

Speech production is a result of the coordinated movement of various organs within the mouth and throat. These organs modify the airflow from the lungs to produce organized sounds that convey meaning to listeners. Research indicates that approximately half of the human body's components, spanning from the head to the abdomen, play a role in producing speech.
The term organs of speech encompasses all bodily parts involved in creating speech sounds, from the lungs to the lips and nose. These organs manipulate the airflow from the lungs in various ways, generating different speech sounds.

Organs of Speech Overview

  • Lungs: Sponge-like tissues within the rib cage supplying the airstream used during speech production.

  • Trachea: Air travels through this pipe from the lungs.

  • Vocal folds: Comprising two elastic tissues located in the larynx. The glottis, an aperture between the vocal folds, plays a significant role in adjusting airflow for sound quality. If the glottis is open without obstruction, it creates voiceless sounds; however, if it vibrates due to airflow pressure from the lungs, voiced sounds are produced.

  • Vocal tract: Encompasses the air passages above the larynx, divided into the oral cavity and nasal cavity.

Articulators

The parts of the vocal tract facilitating sound formation are termed articulators. Articulators are classified into:

  • Active articulators: Moving organs, such as the tongue and lips.

  • Passive articulators: Fixed organs that do not move, including the teeth and hard palate.

The tongue, known as the most flexible active articulator, can adopt various positions for consonant and vowel articulation. Specific parts of the tongue relevant to articulation include the tip (apex), front, back, center (middle), root, body, and blade. Other essential articulators include the soft palate (velum), hard palate, alveolar ridge, and teeth.

2.2 The Sounds of English

Individual languages utilize a limited selection of possible sounds generated by speech organs; these significant sounds are called phonemes. The English language consists of forty-four (44) phonemes: 20 vowels and 24 consonants. The discussion of consonants and vowels primarily revolves around articulatory criteria.

2.2.1 Consonants

Consonants are produced by obstructing airflow between two articulators. Distinctions among consonant sounds are made based on:

  • Place of articulation: Determining where articulators come into contact.

  • Manner of articulation: Referring to how airflow is obstructed.

  • State of the glottis: Indicating whether the vocal folds vibrate during sound production.

Classification of Consonants by Place of Articulation

  • Bilabial sounds: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ (produced using two lips).

  • Labiodental sounds: /f/, /v/ (produced with the lower lip and upper teeth).

  • Dental sounds: /θ/, /ð/ (produced with the tongue against upper teeth).

  • Alveolar sounds: /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/ (produced with the tongue against the alveolar ridge).

  • Post-alveolar sounds: /r/ (produced with the tongue near the postalveolar region).

  • Palato-alveolar sounds: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/ (produced using the blade of the tongue and palate).

  • Palatal sounds: /j/ (produced with the front of the tongue against hard palate).

  • Velar sounds: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ (produced with the back of the tongue against the soft palate).

  • Glottal sounds: /h/ (produced in the vocal folds).

Classification of Consonants by Manner of Articulation

Seven types may be categorized based on airflow restrictions:

  1. Stops (Plosives): /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/ — complete closure before releasing.

  2. Fricatives: /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /θ/, /h/, /v/, /z/, /ʒ/, /ð/ — close approximation resulting in fricative noise.

  3. Affricates: /tʃ/, /dʒ/ — begin as stops and release into fricatives.

  4. Nasals: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ — airflow is diverted through the nose when the velum is lowered.

  5. Approximants: /r/, /w/, /j/ — narrow gaps created without friction.

  6. Laterals: /l/ — air flows around the sides of the tongue.

  7. Trill: [r] — rapid vibration of the tongue against the alveolar ridge.

State of the Glottis

The voicing aspect of consonant sounds is influenced by the glottis' state:

  • Voiceless consonants: lack vocal fold vibration. Examples include /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /f/, /ʃ/, /θ/, /h/, /tʃ/.

  • Voiced consonants: involve vocal fold vibration. Examples include /b/, /d/, /g/, /z/, /v/, /ʒ/, /ð/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/.

Using these parameters, consonants can be described more specifically.
Examples include:

  • /p/: voiceless bilabial stop (e.g., "pot")

  • /b/: voiced bilabial stop (e.g., "bad")

  • /t/: voiceless alveolar stop (e.g., "top")

  • /d/: voiced alveolar stop (e.g., "den")

  • /k/: voiceless velar stop (e.g., "cough")

  • /g/: voiced velar stop (e.g., "goat")
    And many more corresponding to the other consonants in English.

2.2.2 Vowels

Vowels, in contrast to consonants, are produced without obstruction; airflow is continuous from the larynx to the lips. All vowel sounds in English are voiced, with twenty distinct vowel sounds: twelve are monophthongs (pure vowels) and eight are diphthongs.

Parameters for Describing Vowels

  1. Tongue height:

    • High or close vowels: /i:/, /ɪ/, /u:/, /ʊ/**

    • Low or open vowels: /æ/, /ɒ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/**

    • Mid vowels: /ɛ/, /ɜ:/, /ə/, /ɔ:/**

  2. Tongue horizontality:

    • Front vowels: /i:/, /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/**

    • Back vowels: /u:/, /ʊ/, /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /ɑ:/**

    • Central vowels: /ɜ:/, /ə/, /ʌ/**

  3. Degree of lip rounding:

    • Spread (e.g., /i:/, /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/)

    • Neutral (e.g., /ʌ/, /ɜ:/, /ɑ:/, /ə/)

    • Rounded (e.g., /ɒ/, /ʊ/, /ɔ:/, /u/)

  4. Duration:

    • Tense vowels: /i:/, /ɜ:/, /ɔ:/, /u:/, /ɑ:/ — indicated as long or tense.

    • Lax vowels: /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ə/, /ɒ/, /ʊ/ — considered short or lax.

The articulation of vowels is summarized in the vowel chart reflecting tongue height and horizontality.

Vowel Sound Examples

  • /i/: high, front, tense vowel (as in "seat")

  • /ɪ/: mid-high, front, lax vowel (as in "rich")

  • /ɛ/: mid, front, lax vowel (as in "bed")

  • /æ/: low, front, lax vowel (as in "man")

  • /ɑ/: low, back, tense vowel (as in "card")

  • /ʌ/: mid-low, central, lax vowel (as in "cup")

  • /ə/: mid, central, lax vowel (as in "mother")

Diphthongs

Diphthongs are compound vowel sounds transitioning between vowel positions. There are eight diphthongs, categorized based on glide direction:

  • Closing (Rising) Diphthongs:

    1. /eɪ/: (e.g., "gate")

    2. /aɪ/: (e.g., "time")

    3. /ɔɪ/: (e.g., "joy")

    4. /əʊ/: (e.g., "so")

    5. /aʊ/: (e.g., "house")

  • Centering Diphthongs:

    1. /ɪə/: (e.g., "here")

    2. /ɛə/: (e.g., "care")

    3. /ʊə/: (e.g., "poor")

The phonetic symbols typically reflect the two elements of each diphthong. The primary distinction between pure vowels and diphthongs is that while vowels are static, diphthongs involve a movement from one vowel position to another.

2.3 Symbols and Transcriptions

The phonetic symbols used to represent English sounds differ from the English alphabet. They derive from the International Phonetic Association (IPA) and signify phonemes—sounds that differentiate meaning in words.

For example:

  • /kʌt/ “cut” vs. /kɒt/ “cot” vs. /kɑ:t/ “cart”
    Transcription is the process of representing spoken language in a linear sound sequence using phonetic symbols. Variations in the sounds of letters demonstrate the inconsistency of English spelling; for example, the letter "a" may correspond with different phonemes.

Transcription also may reflect quantitative differences, such as denoting long vs. short vowels:

  • /i:/ (long) vs. /ɪ/ (short).

Examples of Sound-Letter Inconsistencies

  1. /sɔs/ “source” - three sound symbols, six letters.

  2. /fɔl/ “fall” - three sound symbols, four letters.

  3. /ʃɜt/ “shirt” - three sound symbols, five letters.

  4. /tʌf/ “tough” - three sound symbols, five letters.

  5. /kɛə/ “care” - two sound symbols, four letters.

These illustrations highlight that English orthography doesn't reliably mirror pronunciation. It is advisable for learners to improve pronunciation accuracy through conscious practice and utilize dictionaries that provide phonetic transcriptions for effective learning.

Summary of Study Session 2

In this session, students have learned that:

  • Speech production results from the combined action of airflow from the lungs alongside multiple organs located in the head, neck, and chest, each performing distinct functions.

  • The English phoneme inventory consists of forty-four speech sounds: twenty vowels and twenty-four consonants.

  • Consonants are classified based on the parameters of place and manner of articulation, as well as the state of the glottis; vowels are categorized by tongue position, lip shape, and duration.

  • Spoken English can be represented in a sequence of phonetic symbols captured as transcription, which is fundamentally different from standard spelling conventions.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2

  1. List five organs of speech and their locations in the human body.

  2. State the function of each of the listed organs in relation to speech production.

  3. What is the basic difference between consonant and vowel articulation?

  4. In a table, categorize the following symbols as English vowels or consonants: /ə, ʒ, ɒ, ʤ, ð, ɛ, ʧ, ŋ, ɵ, æ, ʃ, ɑ, ʌ, ɔ, ʊ/.

  5. Transcribe the following monosyllabic English words: (a) mouth (b) youth (c) state (d) love (e) teach (f) care (g) proud (h) street.

References

  • Adetugbo, A. (1997). English Phonetics: A Course Text. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.

  • Awonusi, S. (1999). Coping with English Pronunciation. Lagos: O.O.P.

  • Ladefoged, P. (2006). A Course in Phonetics (5th Edn.). USA: Wadsworth.

  • Roach, P. (2000). English Phonetics and Phonology (2nd Edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Suggestions for Further Reading

  • Clark, J., Yallop, C., & Fletcher, J. (2007). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology (3rd Edn.). Australia: Blackwell.

  • Cruttenden, A. (2008). Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. London: Hodder.

  • Yule, G. (2010). The Study of Language (4th Edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.