notes from class
Associative Network of Memory
Definition of Memory: Memory is based on organized information in long-term storage.
Retrieving Information
Types of Recall:
Recall: Retrieving information from long-term storage without cues.
Example: Writing an essay without looking at notes.
Cued Recall: Retrieving information with help from cues.
Example: Hearing a song that triggers the memory of its lyrics.
Recognition: Involves identifying information among several choices presented.
Example: Taking a multiple-choice test where one recognizes the correct answer from options.
Context-Dependent Memory
Definition: Memory retrieval is facilitated when the context of encoding matches the context of retrieval.
Implications:
When the context of retrieval does not match that of encoding, it impairs memory retrieval.
State-Dependent Memory
Definition: The tendency for information to be recalled when the physiological state at learning matches that at retrieval.
Mood Congruence:
Memory recall is improved when the mood at retrieval matches the mood at encoding.
Formation and Retrieval of Memory
Phases of Information Processing
Encoding:
Definition: The process of changing information into a code that the brain can store.
Example: A reader encodes visual input into words on a page.
Storage:
Definition: Maintaining encoded information over time.
Example: A reader strengthens storage by taking notes during reading.
Retrieval:
Definition: Accessing stored information for use.
Example: Successfully retrieving information for use in an exam after proper encoding and storage.
Forgetting Information
Types of Interference:
Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with the learning of new information.
Example: Old memories getting in the way of learning new concepts.
Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the retention of old information.
Example: New memories causing forgetting of previously learned materials.
Absent-Mindedness:
Definition: Forgetfulness due to lapses in attention (often due to multitasking).
Misattribution:
Definition: The tendency of people to remember the source of their memories incorrectly, such as misremembering time, place, person, or circumstances.
Suggestibility:
Definition: A memory distortion phenomenon where existing memories can be altered if exposed to misleading information.
Thinking and Decision Making
Cognitive Processes in Thinking:
Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions or making decisions based on information.
Individuals access beliefs to determine the validity of a statement to choose between options.
Common Errors in Thinking:
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to ignore inconsistent information with one’s pre-existing beliefs, seeking information that confirms those beliefs.
Illusory Correlation: The perception of a relationship between variables when none exists.
Availability Heuristic: Tendency to rely on immediate examples that come to a person's mind when evaluating a specific topic or decision.
Hindsight Bias: The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.
Representativeness Heuristic: Assessing similarity of objects and organizing them based around the category prototype.
Framing Effect: The way the information is presented impacts decision-making.
Reducing Cognitive Errors:
Involves considering alternative theories or interpretations to minimize biases and enhance decision-making quality.