Classical Greece Midterm 1 Notes

Classics 36B - Classical Greece: The Archaic Period (700-480 BC)

Geographic Context

  • Map of Greece and its neighboring islands, showing significant locations of Greek colonization and trading routes.

    • Important sites: Massalia, Byzantium, Olbia, Heraclea, and more.

    • Geographic regions include:

    • Atlantic Ocean

    • Aegean Sea

    • Mediterranean Sea

    • Black Sea

  • Exploration and contact with various areas such as:

    • Northern Africa

    • The Levant (areas around modern-day Syria)

    • Italy

Characteristics of the Archaic Period

  • General overview of the Archaic Period:

    • Marked as a period of significant reconstruction following the Greek Dark Ages.

    • A time of exploration and extensive contact with diverse cultures.

    • Emergence of an “Orientalized” artistic style that reflects influences from Eastern cultures.

    • Revival of writing through the adoption of the Phoenician alphabet, indicating a shift in communication and record-keeping.

Greek Colonization and Trade

  • The Western Mediterranean was colonized by both Phoenicians and Greeks, allowing them control over regional trade.

  • Key Greek colonies established include:

    • Cyrene

    • Naucratis

    • Massalia (modern-day Marseille)

    • Various other sites mentioned on the trade routes map.

  • Trade products included:

    • Tin and silver from Britain and Sierra Morena

    • Grain from the Black Sea

    • Olive oil and wine from Greek territories

    • Gold from Nubia via Egypt

Coinage

  • The introduction of coinage to Greek communities was attributed to Pheidon of Argos.

  • The first coins were minted in Anatolia.

  • Early coins were primarily made from electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver.

  • Coinage replaced earlier barter systems, revolutionizing commerce.

  • Example: Electrum coins from the city of Ephesus, dated to the 7th century BC.

Greek Coins

  • Two notable denominations of Greek coins are:

    • Obol: Translates literally to “spit” or “nail”; considered a smaller denomination.

    • Drachma: Meaning “a handful”; regarded as a larger denomination—1 drachma = 6 obols.

Development of the Polis

  • The concept of the Polis, or city-state, is introduced.

    • Synoecism: Refers to the process of combining several smaller communities into a larger, politically autonomous unit.

    • A Polis typically comprises an urban center, often featuring an Acropolis (elevated religious and governmental area), surrounded by residential areas and agricultural land.

Internal Civil Conflict - Stasis

  • Internal conflicts characterized by struggles between social classes:

    • Large landowners (aristocrats) versus small farmers or poorer citizens.

    • Advances in agricultural methods led to wealth accumulation among landowners.

    • Small farmers often exploited through high rents, leading to cycles of indebtedness and indentured servitude.

    • There were notable rivalries and conflicts among aristocratic families vying for power.

Greek Tyrants

  • During the period of instability, some aristocrats seized power, becoming what were known as tyrants.

    • Tyrant: Defined as an individual who comes to power through means other than regular electoral processes—often by use of force.

Consideration Questions

  • Discussion points for consideration on the topic of Greek polis development:

    • How do interactions with “outsiders” (foreigners, other cultures) influence the development and governance of individual poleis?

    • In what ways are the political systems of various poleis similar or different?

Geographic Context of Sparta

  • Regions: Notable regions surrounding Sparta include:

    • Mycenae

    • Aegina

    • Phlius

    • Olympia

    • Mantinea

    • Argos

    • Troezen

    • Pylos

    • Methone

    • Gyth

  • Sparta Significance: Central focus of ancient Greek civilization referred to as "THIS IS SPARTA!"

Geography of the Peloponnesus

  • Geographic Division: The Peloponnesus and its regions, detailed by various geographic zones:

    • Thessalia

    • Central Greece

    • Attica

    • Aegean Islands

    • Cyclades

  • Surrounding Waters: Key bodies of water include:

    • Ionian Sea

    • Gulf of Corinth

    • Saronic Gulf

  • Prominent Cities: Include Patras, Achaea, Corinthia, Elis, Arcadia, Argolid, Sparta, and Megara.

The Spartan Mirage

  • Popular Culture Reference: The term "The Spartan Mirage" linked to contemporary interpretations in media, specifically referencing the game "Assassin's Creed: Odyssey."

Geography and Spartan Exceptionalism

  • Mt. Taygetos: West boundary of Lakonia, separating it from Messenia.

  • Mt. Parnon: Northeast boundary separating Lakonia from Argolis.

  • Isolation: Geography contributed to the Spartans' isolation from other regions, affecting their cultural and societal development.

  • Important Terms:

    • Aidos: Greek term signifying “reserve.”

    • Xenolasia: Policy of expelling foreigners from Sparta.

Political Structure and Laws

  • Lykourgos' Influence: An (semi-)legendary lawmaker credited with preventing Spartan stasis.

  • Eunomia Concept: Society driven by the principle of "good order"—opposed to tyranny.

  • Spartan Identity:

    • Men known as homoioi meaning "equals."

    • Culture characterized as laconic, emphasizing brevity in communication and valorization of glorious deaths.

    • Special disposition toward harsh conditions and military prowess.

Religion and Architecture in Sparta

  • Throne of Amyklai: Sacred site dedicated to hero Hyakinthos and Apollo.

  • Menelaion: Temple dedicated to King Menelaus and Queen Helen, signifying royal lineage and worship.

  • Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia: Temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis; practices noted:

    • Offerings included lead figurines and terracotta masks, potentially linked to initiation rituals.

    • Ritual of boys stealing cheese wheels, which involved physical punishment (whippings) during attempts.

Spartan Colonization - Taras

  • Spartan Colony: Taras represented the only official Spartan colony; significant in understanding expansionist policies.

  • Geographic Context: In proximity to notable historical regions such as Rome, Naples, and Sicily.

Conflict with Messenia

  • Wars Overview: Three significant wars fought between Sparta and Messenia:

    • First Messenian War: Mid to late 8th century BC.

    • Second Messenian War: Early 7th century BC, caused considerable societal changes in Sparta.

    • Third Messenian War: Occurred in the 5th century BC.

  • Resource Competition: Wars rooted in the struggle for fertile lands and resources in Messenia.

  • Consequences: The Second War notably shifted Spartan societal focus to maintaining control over Messenian lands.

Social Structure: Helots and Perioikoi

  • Helots: Defeated Messenians, classified as hereditary subjects/slaves of Sparta.

    • Background: Worked on their own land but surrendered most goods to Spartan masters.

    • Historical Context: Lived under Spartan control for over 300 years; notable demographic imbalance with Spartans (approximately 7 Helots for every Spartan).

  • Perioikoi: Individuals categorized as “dwellers around” Sparta:

    • Status: Free people engaged in farming, commerce, and crafts.

    • Military Requirement: Bound to serve in the Spartan army but lacked governance rights.

The Spartan Upbringing - The Agoge

  • Training Program: State-sponsored framework initiated at age 7, continued throughout various age groups:

    • Children youthful training compared across stages:

    • Children: Early indoctrination.

    • Boys: Introductory phase until age 12.

    • Youths (Ephebes): Adolescent phase emphasizing military preparation.

    • Young Men: Continued military and societal training into adulthood.

The Initiation Process

  • At Age 12:

    • Hair cut short as a rite of passage.

    • Issued one red cloak, the primary garment for the year.

    • Inclusion in "dining groups" (syssition) begins; tasked to supplement food through theft if necessary, marking a theme of resilience.

Military Training and Syssition

  • Ephebes: Engage in preliminary military service with elite members participating in the Krypteia—a secretive sibling-like military unit.

  • Syssition Structure: From ages 20 to 30, men live in groups of 15-20, sharing meals and responsibility:

    • Essential for achieving adulthood and Spartan camaraderie.

    • Food provisioning mandatory—failure to provide leads to demotion to hypomeiones or “inferiors.”

    • Group participates in cultural practices such as the consumption of black broth and enduring ridicule.

    • Marriage expected by age 30, though living arrangements dictate residence with syssition members.

Achieving Citizenship

  • At Age 30: Spartan men formally graduate from the Agoge:

    • Attain full citizenship and recognition as a Spartiate.

    • Rights gained include the ability to vote and hold public office roles.

Sparta

Syssition

  • Definition: A syssition is a dining group consisting of approximately 15-20 men.

  • Importance: This group is an essential stage for Spartans in reaching adulthood.

  • Responsibilities:

    • All members are required to provide food for the group.

    • Failure to provide food results in expulsion from the syssition and a demotion to the status of hypomeiones (inferiors).

  • Cultural Aspects:

    • Members of the syssition are known for eating the fabled "black broth," which is a traditional Spartan dish.

    • There is an element of constant ridicule directed at helots (state-owned serfs) during these gatherings.

  • Marriage Expectations: Spartan men are expected to marry by the age of 30.

  • Living Arrangements: Spartan men continue to live with their syssition even after they are married.

Age 30 and Citizenship

  • At the age of 30, a Spartan man officially completes his agoge (the rigorous education and training regimen).

  • Full Citizenship: Upon completion, he gains full citizenship and the title of Spartiate, which allows him to:

    • Vote

    • Hold office

Spartan Women

  • Quote: "WHAT MAKES THIS WOMAN THINK SHE CAN SPEAK AMONG MEN? BECAUSE ONLY SPARTAN WOMEN GIVE BIRTH TO REAL MEN."

  • Cultural Significance: This highlights the perceived strength and importance of Spartan women in society as the bearers of future male warriors.

Girls' Training

  • State-Sponsored Training: Girls undergo state-sponsored training divided by age groups which include:

    • Children

    • Young girls

    • Maidens who have reached puberty

    • Married women

Young Spartans Artwork

  • Reference to the painting "Young Spartans Exercising" by Degas, which illustrates the physical training and lifestyle of young Spartan males.

Spartan Marriage

  • Cultural Norms:

    • The phrase "DON'T TELL THE SPARTAN BRIDE" suggests there are unique customs associated with Spartan marriages.

Spartan Polygamy and Oliganthropia

  • Polygamy (Polyandry): Spartan society practiced polyandry, which allowed multiple husbands for one woman. This was largely due to the phenomenon known as oliganthropia, which impacted population dynamics.

  • Cultural Philosophy:

    • KEEPING IT ALL IN THE FAMILY MEANS NOT SPLITTING THE INHERITANCE highlights the practical reasoning behind this custom, aiming to maintain wealth and property within the family.

Spartan Women in the Household

  • Role: Spartan women enjoyed a certain level of freedom and independence, especially since their husbands frequently went off to war.

Education, Sexuality, and Pederasty

  • Further Discussion: The transcript indicates a forthcoming examination or theory regarding the intersection of education, sexuality, and the social practice of pederasty, an important theme in the context of Spartan culture.

The Spartan Government

Lykourgos and The Great Rhetra

  • Discussed in the context of ancient Spartan governance.

  • Important historical figures include Lykourgos, attributed with structuring the government through a divine oracle.

  • The text of the Great Rhetra is preserved by the biographer Plutarch.

  • It is alleged that Lykourgos received guidance on government organization from the Oracle of Delphi.

  • (Refer to pages 136-137 of the associated textbook for detailed context.)

Shift from Democracy

  • A significant transition away from traditional democratic practices occurred in Sparta.

  • Power was diverted from the "damos/demos" (the community) into the hands of a select few.

  • These changes were likely spurred by the Messenian Wars, which impacted the political structure of Sparta.

  • Resulted in the establishment of a mixed constitution that blended various elements of governance.

Dual Kingship

  • Sparta was characterized by its dual kingship.

    • Kingship as Historical Continuity:

    • Kingship is a holdover from earlier periods of Greek history.

    • Royal Families Involved:

    • Kings emerged from two royal families: the Eurypontids and the Agiads.

    • Succession was hereditary, maintaining a lineage rule.

  • Authority of the Kings:

    • Both kings held equal authority and acted as mutual checks on each other’s power.

    • Roles Defined:

    • One king served as the commander of the army.

    • The other king oversaw domestic matters within Sparta.

    • Referred to collectively as the "archagetai" or "the leaders," a title that also applies to the god Apollo.

    • Both kings were involved at every level of government decision-making.

Gerousia: The Council of Elders

  • Consisted of 30 members in total:

    • 28 Spartiates aged 60 or older.

    • The two Spartan kings.

  • Term and Selection:

    • Members served lifetime terms, reflecting a stable council composition.

    • "Elected" from the Apella (the assembly).

    • Typically comprised wealthy and influential individuals.

  • Functions:

    • Summoned to propose matters to the Apella.

    • Had the authority to veto decisions made by the Apella.

    • Oversaw the criminal court system.

Apella: The Assembly

  • Comprised of Spartiates aged 30 and older.

  • Meeting Frequency:

    • Met once a month to vote on proposals brought forth by the Gerousia.

  • Voting Rights:

    • Assembly members had no input on the content of proposals and could only vote "yes" or "no" on the proposals presented.

Ephors: The Magistrates

  • Introduced as a late addition to the framework outlined in the Great Rhetra.

  • Comprised of 5 Spartiate members aged 30 and older.

  • Election and Term Limits:

    • Elected by the Apella.

    • Served one-year terms; re-election was prohibited.

  • Key Responsibilities:

    • Supervise the kings and swear an oath to uphold the kings’ authority.

    • One ephor would accompany the king during military campaigns.

    • Oversaw the Gerousia and Apella, as well as the Agoge (the Spartan education system).

    • Responsible for applying laws, managing foreign relations, and overseeing civil courts.

Athens and Its Neighbors in Attica

  • Geographical Context

    • Southern landmass known as Peloponnesus/Peloponnese

    • Encompassing regions included:

    • Sparta

    • Achaea

    • Corinth

    • Argolis

Autochthonous Athenians

  • Definition: Autochthonous Athenians have a closer tie to the land itself.

  • Mythological Connection:

    • Connection is rooted in myth; related to Erechtheos.

    • Erechtheos: A mythical king of Athens, son of Hephaestus.

    • He was raised by Athena, establishing a divine connection to the city and land of Athens.

The Oikos: Household Structure

  • Definition of Oikos:

    • Greek term for "household".

    • Considered the basic unit of social life within Athenian society.

  • Composition:

    • Comprised of:

    • The family

    • Retainers (attendants/servants)

    • Slaves

  • Key Areas Within the Household:

    • Bedroom

    • Bathroom

    • Well

    • Gynaeceum (women's quarters)

    • Andron (men's quarters)

    • Kitchen

Related Social Structures

  • Genē (Clans):

    • Related households are organized into genē, with singular form being genos.

  • Phratries (Social Groups):

    • Larger social groupings are called phratries, with singular form being phratry.

  • Thiasoi (Religious Groups):

    • Religious units known as thiasoi and orgeones (with singular forms being thiasos and orgeon).

  • Phyle (Tribes):

    • Men were divided into one of four tribes, known as phyle (plural: phylai).

Early Athenian Government

  • Archons of Athens:

    • Leaders drawn from aristocratic families, referred to as Eupatrids (meaning "well-born, offspring of noble fathers").

  • Roles of the First Three Archons:

    • Archon Basileus:

    • Acted as administrator for cults and oversaw religious/cult matters.

    • Polemarch:

    • Commander of the Athenian army.

    • Eponymous Archon:

    • Chief archon who supervised public affairs, presided over the Athenian council and assembly, and judged cases not involving religion.

    • The year of events was named after him (e.g., “this happened during the archonship of ____”).

  • Expansion of Archonship:

    • Six additional archons were added later, known as Thesmothetai, who acted as judicial officials.

    • All archons served one-year terms but could be re-elected.

The Council of the Areopagus

  • General Overview:

    • Description of duties and functions of the Areopagus not provided in transcript but typically serves as an advisory body.

The Public Assembly

  • Composition:

    • Included all adult male citizens of Athens.

  • Functions:

    • Responsible for voting on policies.

    • Believed to have had the authority to "elect" archons.

Participation in Early Government

  • Key Points:

    • Focus on participation levels and democratic processes in early Athenian governance (exact details require elaboration from further context).

Athens Continued

Aristocratic Competition

  • The story of Hippokleides, documented in Herodotus's Histories.

    • Key Themes:

    • Emphasis on rivalry among the aristocrats.

    • Behavior and actions signify aristocratic status.

Kylon’s Failed Tyranny

  • Background: Kylon, an Olympic victor and son-in-law of a tyrant in Megara, sought to establish his own tyranny in Athens.

    • Events:

    • Upon failure, Kylon took refuge at the altar of Athena with his supporters.

    • He managed to escape with his brother.

    • Supporters attempted to surrender to the archons but were slaughtered.

    • Megakles, the leading archon, was charged with committing sacrilege.

    • Result: Kylon's family was exiled.

Aristocrats’ Problems with Coinage

  • Beginning of coin minting in Athens during the 6th century BC.

    • Introduction of heraldic blazons (emblems), also known as Wappenmünzen.

    • Economic Impact:

    • Shifted perceptions of wealth and status among the aristocrats.

Drako - Athenian Lawmaker

  • Appointed to resolve societal issues in Athens.

    • Major Contributions:

    • Established a written code of law known for its excessive harshness, even for minor crimes.

    • Laws described metaphorically as “written in blood.”

    • Differentiated between intentional and unintentional homicide.

    • Assigned the Council of Areopagus to handle homicide case decisions.

    • Impact: Homicide laws continued to be significant even after the Archaic period.

Stasis and Anarchy

  • Reports of episodes of stasis (civil strife) between 595-594 BC.

  • Period of anarchy in Athens documented in 590-589 BC.

    • Source: Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens.

Solon

  • Elected as eponymous archon in 594 BC.

Seisachtheia

  • Known as the "shaking off of burdens."

  • Refers to reforms concerning debt relief and the alleviation of burdens among the poor.

Solonian Reforms

  • Offered a range of reforms aimed at improving the socioeconomic structure of Athens.

  • Importance of Citizenship and Class Structure:

    1. Political rights and participation restructured based on wealth categories:

    2. Pentekosiomedimnoi

      • Definition: Produce at least 500 measures (medimnoi) of goods.

      • Rights: Had access to all levels of government.

    3. Hippeis (Knights)

      • Definition: Produce 300-499 measures of goods.

      • Rights: Could afford a horse, served in cavalry, and had access to all levels of government.

    4. Zeugetai (Yoke men)

      • Definition: Produce 200-299 measures of goods.

      • Rights: Wealthy enough to own oxen and buy armor.

      • Participation: Served in hoplite phalanx, could join the Assembly (ekklesia) and the Council of 400; however, could not be elected to archon or the Council of Areopagus.

    5. Thetes (Serfs)

      • Definition: Produce less than 200 measures of goods.

      • Rights: Subsistence farmers, served as light-armed troops or rowers in the navy.

      • Political participation limited to the Assembly (ekklesia).

Council of 400

  • Membership limited to the top three classes.

  • Functions:

    • Acted as advisory body to the Ekklesia.

    • Responsible for preparing the agenda and legislation for the Ekklesia to vote on.

Solon After the Reforms

  • Reflection on the aftermath of the reforms and their societal implications.

Changes in Funerary Practices

  • Shifts observed among aristocratic families in their approach to funerals.

    • New limits placed on ritual lamentation practices.

    • Prohibition against political songs during funerals.

    • Limits on displays of wealth during funerals noted.

    • Specific changes referenced on pages 156-157 in the textbook.

Athens after Solon

  • New period of instability and anarchy emerged in Athens following Solon’s reforms.

    • New factions arose:

    • Men of the Coast:

      • Consisting of merchants and craftsmen.

      • Led by Megakles, an Alkmaionid and grandson of the Megakles who previously killed Kylon’s supporters.

    • Men of the Plain:

      • Comprised of landowners.

      • Led by Lykourgos, a different figure than the Spartan lawmaker.

    • Men of the Hill:

      • Included poorer citizens.

      • Led by Peisistratos, who was a distant relative of Solon.

Peisistratos

Peisistratos' First Rise to Power

  • Peisistratos managed to gain power during the conflicts between Megakles and Lykourgos.

  • Megakles sought a popular ally and arranged the marriage of his daughter to Peisistratos.

  • Upon his return, Peisistratos brought with him a woman named “Athena” (Phye), which was noted by Herodotos in his Histories as being done Οὐ κατὰ νόμον (ou kata nomon) meaning "not according to custom".

Peisistratos' Second Rise to Power

  • The Battle of Pallene was significant in 546 BC, where Peisistratos utilized a private army.

  • Peisistratos was able to lead Athens and Attica for a duration of 20 years.

Peisistratos' Reforms

  • During his rule, Peisistratos maintained existing laws and held annual elections.

  • Rural magistrates were appointed to enhance governance.

  • Establishment of outreach initiatives aimed at the poorer citizens.

  • Introduced a 5% produce tax along with silver mining operations in Laureion and Mount Pangaion.

  • Increased exports of olives and pottery significantly.

Peisistratos' Building Program

  • Peisistratos is well-remembered for a large building program that significantly transformed Athens:

    • Hephaistion

    • Agora (marketplace)

    • Kolonos

    • Stoas (covered sidewalks)

    • Tholos (round building)

    • Multiple buildings and structures around the Agora were developed, including

    • A new Bouleuterion (council house)

    • Altar of the 12 Gods

    • Temple of Athena, built by Peisistratos' grandson.

    • The Temple of Olympian Zeus, which Peisistratos started and was later finished by Roman Emperor Hadrian.

Festivals: Dionysia and the Panathenaia

Panathenaia Festival

  • Included music and athletic contests; it was an important cultural celebration reflected in ancient records.

  • Victorious musicians were awarded a golden crown, valued at 1,000 drachmae.

  • Winning athletes received olive oil from sacred olive trees, stored in amphorae (large vases with two handles).

Political Developments: Kleisthenes and his Reforms

Democratic Reforms

  • Kleisthenes, another Alkmaionid, opposed the archon Isagoras.

  • His campaign involved appealing directly to the people.

Reorganization of the Tribes of Athens

  • Originally, there were four tribes (phylai) which were reorganized into ten tribes.

  • New smaller communities known as Demes were spread throughout the newly formed tribes.

  • Each of the ten tribes divided into thirds known as trittyes, categorized by geographic regions: urban, inland, and coastal.

  • This reorganization also influenced army structure based on new tribal organization.

The Council of 500 (Boule)

  • The council comprised members chosen by lot, balancing representation.

  • Each tribe contributed 50 men.

  • Each tribe led the council for 1/10 of the year.

  • The council remained responsible for setting the agenda for the Ekklesia (assembly) and assisted in governance.

  • Ten strategoi (generals) were elected by the tribes.

  • Introduction of a new jury system that included men from the ten tribes.

Ostracism

  • Ostracism allowed the Ekklesia (assembly) to send a man into exile for a period of 10 years.

  • This process required a majority of votes to take effect.

  • It was seldom utilized, with fewer than 15 individuals ostracized from 487 BC to 415 BC.

Geographic Locations

  • Sardis

  • Memphis

  • Egypt

  • Thebes

  • Ancient Persia

  • Assyria

  • Ashur

  • Niniveh

  • Bactria

  • Parthia

  • Susa

  • Babylon

  • Babylonia

  • Pasargadae

  • Persepolis

  • Maka

Greek Views of Eastern Civilizations

  • "Othering" of Eastern Civilizations

    • Greek feelings of pride and self-confidence leading to triumphalism.

    • Demonization of foreign peoples and cultures.

    • Concept of “Western civilization” as an ideal.

Origins of the Persians

  • Likely origins are in the region of southern Russia.

  • The Persians were semi-nomadic and later migrated south, assimilating into local populations.

  • They settled in the Iranian region prior to 700 BCE.

The Achaemenid Dynasty

  • Cyrus the Great

    • Born circa 600 BCE, a descendant of Achaemenes.

    • Established the Achaemenid Empire and expanded it significantly.

    • Died around 530 BCE.

  • Cambyses II

    • Son of Cyrus, expanded the empire to include Egypt.

    • His reign was tumultuous and lasted approximately 8 years.

  • Darius I

    • Came to power in 522 BCE after the overthrow of Cambyses II’s brother, Bardiya (also known as Smerdis and Gaumata).

    • Expanded Persian authority following Cyrus' and Cambyses' reigns.

Satrapies and Empire Administration

  • Illustrating the satrapies under Darius I:

    • Regions like Scythia, Macedonia, Thrace, and Armenia.

    • Each satrapy had local governors known as satraps.

    • Responsibilities included maintaining order and collecting tribute.

  • Significance of having a structure to manage revolts and conflicts within the royal family, including the challenges between Cambyses II and Bardiya.

Religion under the Achaemenids

  • Satraps instructed to allow tolerance for different religions and customs.

  • Notable events include:

    • Cyrus' liberation of the Jews, mentioned in Biblical texts.

    • A letter from Darius warning a satrap against disrespecting the deity Apollo.

Greek Perspectives on Persian Religion

  • Accounts from Herodotus and Plato.

  • Zoroastrianism:

    • Core themes include the dualism of good versus evil and the significance of free will.

    • The prophet is Zarathustra and the supreme entity is Ahura Mazda.

    • Central conflict revolves around “the Lie.”

    • Connections made to the governance of Persian kings.

Communication within the Persian Empire

  • Utilized a network of wide and well-maintained roads.

  • Road system enabled swift communication across the empire.

    • Employed horse-changing posts known as pirradaziš.

    • Each post was manned with a horse and rider ready for immediate travel.

Economic and Administrative Cohesion

  • Empire maintained cohesion and control through the collection of tribute from the satellite regions (satrapies).

Cultural Impact and Notable Structures

  • Persépolis: Significant cultural site during the Achaemenid Empire.

    • Depicted in Persepolis, the graphic novel by Marjane Satrapi.

  • Apadana: Reference to an important architectural feature in Persepolis.

Persia Continued

Greek City-States and Neighboring Regions

  • Important regions/cities:

    • Athens

    • Sparta

    • Boeotia

    • Euboea

    • Chalcidice/Chalkidike

    • Ionia

    • Corinth

    • Miletos

The Kingdom of Darius I

  • Bosporos Crossing (513 BC):

    • Darius I crossed the Bosporos with a pontoon bridge.

    • Proceeded northwest into Thrace.

  • Conquest Timeline:

    • By 500 BC, he successfully conquered areas proximal to Greek territories.

The Origins and Battles of the Ionian Revolt

  • Key Figure:

    • Aristagoras: Greek, newly appointed tyrant of Miletos.

  • Interest in Naxos:

    • Attempted to assert influence over Naxos, leading to a failed military campaign.

  • Appeal to Satrap:

    • Reached out to Artaphernes (Darius’s brother) for aid in the revolt.

  • Consequences of Failure:

    • Revolt erupted following a failed campaign, spurred by Greek populations’ desire for democracy rather than Persian-imposed tyrants.

The Burning of Sardis (498 BC)

  • Involved Parties:

    • Ionian Greeks, Athenians, Eretrians from Euboea.

  • Battle of Lade:

    • Took place in 494 BC, where the engaged forces ultimately faced defeat.

    • Following this event, Darius began establishing Persian-style democracies.

Persian Envoys Come to the Greeks

  • Chronology:

    • In 490 BC, Persian ambassadors arrived in Athens and other Greek poleis.

  • Demand:

    • Requested symbolic tokens of submission, specifically “earth and water.”

  • Fate of Eretria:

    • Eretria in Euboea faced a significant military response from Persia, highlighting the consequences of defiance.

Marathon

  • Geographical Context:

    • Locations Visually Represented:

    • Euboea

    • Delphi

    • Boeotia (Eretria, Thebes)

    • Athens

    • Corinth

    • Attica (Mycenae)

    • Delos

    • Paros

  • Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.):

    • Significant military engagement where Greek forces executed a double envelopment strategy against the Persians.

  • Key Figures:

    • Callimachus: Polemarch and leader during the battle.

    • Miltiades: One of the ten strategoi and a chief strategist.

The Marathonomachoi

  • Historical Accounts:

    • Reference to Aischylos' work mentioning his brother Kynegiros and the significance of the soldiers who perished at Marathon.

    • Cited recognition in the work of Roman historian Justin.

Iconography and Legacy

  • Artistic Expressions:

    • Jean-Pierre Cortot: Sculpture commemorating the soldier from Marathon announcing victory.

    • Pheidippides: Associated with the famous run, symbolizing determination and victory.

    • Striking Phrase: "RUN LIKE PHEIDIPPIDES, FINISH LIKE SOMEONE ELSE."

    • Symbol of Victory: Nike in artistic representation.

Xerxes

  • Military Campaign:

    • Forces Advance (483 BC):

    • Xerxes leads a massive army towards Greece, showcasing both land and naval capabilities

    • Strategic geographical highlights include:

      • Macedonia

      • Hellespont

      • Thermopylae

      • Artemisium

      • Bottice, Chalcidice, and others.

  • Method of Invasion:

    • Utilized both land and sea force simultaneously, illustrating effective strategic planning.

  • Bridge Construction:

    • Construction of a bridge across the Hellespont as a critical logistical maneuver.

Herodotus: The Father of History

  • Concepts of Hubris:

    • Hubris defined as excessive pride or arrogance which ultimately leads to the downfall of the individual and can apply to the historical accounts chronicled in his work concerning the Greco-Persian Wars.

Themistocles and the Athenian Fleet

  • Strategic Meetings:

    • Various poleis convened at Corinth to decide on a collective defense strategy.

    • Some city-states were already choosing to ally with Persia, termed as “medizing.”

  • Locations of Interest:

    • Discussed strategic battle sites including Corinth and Thermopylae, especially under leadership of Leonidas and his famed “300.”

    • Emphasis on Athens constructing triremes to bolster naval capabilities.

The Battle of Thermopylae (480 B.C.)

  • Geographical Layout:

    • Key geographical features established such as Asopos River, elevations denoting camp and movements of Greek and Persian forces.

    • Persian Camp and Allied Greek Forces indicated on representations, signifying the strategic placement and eventual points of conflict.

  • Visual Representation:

    • The map illustrates the intricate geographical relationships between allied camps and Persian forces, showing the difficulty the Greeks faced in their last stand against a numerically superior enemy.

  • Terrain:

    • Details include the varying terrain elevations important for tactics, such as the impassable areas identified for strategic advantage or disadvantage in battle.

PERSIA EPISODE III: THE GREEKS STRIKE BACK (AGAIN!)

The Greek Retreat to the Saronic Gulf

  • Event leading to the Battle of Artemision/Artemisium.

  • Occurred on the same day as the Fall of Thermopylae.

  • Losses from the battle and absence of a decisive victory prompted the Greeks to abandon their positions in the area.

  • The Greek forces retreated southward towards the Saronic Gulf.

  • Discussions took place among the Greek leaders regarding their subsequent actions and strategies.

The Evacuation of Athens

  • In the face of news regarding the defeat at Thermopylae, the Athenians felt compelled to evacuate.

  • Ships returning from the Battle of Artemision/Artemisium provided assistance for the evacuation efforts.

  • Key locations mentioned:

    • Cithaeron

    • Marathon

    • Eleusis

    • Megara

    • Corinth

    • Athens

    • Attica

    • Salamis

    • Aegina

    • Hymet

    • Epidaurus

    • Troezen

    • Hermione

    • Mycenae

Themistokles and the Oracle of Delphi

  • A pivotal moment involved Themistocles consulting the Oracle of Delphi.

  • The consultation included discussions around the necessary sacrifices, particularly the sacrifice of a Spartan king.

  • The interpretation centered around the phrase "Wooden Wall":

    • Options considered were either a palisade on the Acropolis or an Athenian fleet as the true interpretation.

The Greek Fleet Assembles

  • The Greek naval forces gathered along the Kynosoura Peninsula in Salamis.

  • Notably mentioned locations:

    • Salamis Bay

    • Salamina

    • Ampelakia

    • Kynosoura

    • Selinia

    • Kaki Vigla

    • Aiantelo

    • Kanakia

    • Perani

    • Kolones

    • Peristeria

The Battle of Salamis, 480 B.C.

  • The Persian fleet organized into three lines in preparation for battle.

  • Multiple Greek factions involved, such as Athenians, Spartans, Ionian Greeks, and allies, positioning themselves strategically.

  • The significant role of the Egyptian contingent in attempting to block access to the western channel leading to Salamis.

  • Key figures included:

    • Xerxes, the Persian king

    • Pausanias, the Spartan leader

    • Themistocles, Athenian commander

  • Overview of geographic locations:

    • Gulf of Corinth

    • Saronic Gulf with Athens in proximity approximately 7 miles from Piraeus.

Xerxes Withdraws

  • After the initial confrontations, Xerxes retreated to Susa, effectively leaving ongoing conflicts to Persian General Mardonios.

  • Mardonios was designated to complete the campaign against the Greeks.

  • Persian forces were ordered to remain in Boeotia and Thessaly during the winter months to regroup and strategize for resuming hostilities in the following summer.

  • Destruction of temples, shrines, and statues symbolized instances of hubris among the Persians.

Greek Strategic Deliberations

  • A discussion involving the Greek leaders, including considerations on:

    • The medization of Thebes and other factors impacting Greek unity.

    • Potential retreat strategies to Corinth to regroup.

    • The significance of Athens in the broader war efforts.

  • Geographic regions involved:

    • Macedonia, Mt. Olympus, Epirus, Thessaly, Malis, Thrace, Chalcidice, Imbros, and surrounding areas related to Greek territories.

Athenian Diplomatic Relations with Macedon

  • Athenians met with Alexander I of Macedon discussing Greek unity and identity:

    • Reference from Herodotos' Histories emphasizing shared heritage among Greek city-states.

    • Pertinent issues concerning treaty terms from Xerxes, including amnesty for Greek states despite prior adversities.

    • Autonomy proposed for Greeks within the Persian Empire, and discussions regarding territorial expansions.

    • The Athenian perspective on Spartan inquiries regarding their role and response.

Convergence of Greek Forces in Plataia

  • Mardonios commenced a Southern campaign post-evacuation of Athens, negotiating with Athenians regarding terms of engagement at Salamis.

  • Coalition emerged between Athens, Megara, and Plataia, issuing an ultimatum to Sparta to accelerate mobilization.

  • Spartan military forces begin their march northward in response to the ultimatum.

The Battle of Plataia

  • The battle is led by Greek forces under the command of Pausanias, stepping in for Leonidas' son.

The Greek Serpent Column at Delphi

  • A commemorative column dedicated by Spartan general Pausanias, inscribed with a poem commemorating the Greek resistance.

  • Contentious discussions regarding the inscription, as other Greek representatives sought changes.

  • The engravings recognized all Greek poleis participating in the war against Persia.

  • Historical note: the column was relocated to Constantinople (Istanbul) by Emperor Constantine approximately 800 years later.

Aischylos’ Persians and Greek Identity

  • Exploration of the thematic representation of xenophobia within Greek artistic works, depicting the 'soft Easterner.'

  • The aftermath of the Greco-Persian Wars marked the transition from the Archaic period to the Classical period, characterized by:

    • Rise of Greek prominence and notable accomplishments in art, philosophy, and governance.

    • Redefinition of 'barbarian' reflecting the evolving Greek identity.

    • Distinctions drawn between freedom-loving Greeks and the despotic governance typified by Persians.

    • Emphasis on the importance of nuanced historical understanding in discussing this era.