Lesson Module - 6 - Self and Personality - Part - 2

SELF AND PERSONALITY

Conceptualizing the Self

  • Cross-Cultural Variations:

    • Men and women display little difference in individualistic and collectivistic orientations across cultures.

    • Women tend to be more relational, while men exhibit more cohesiveness in friendships.

  • Research by Kashima et al. (1995):

    • Investigated gender differences in independence and interdependence across diverse cultures.

    • Evaluated five cultural groups:

      • 2 Individualistic: United States, Australia

      • 2 Collectivistic: Japan, Korea

      • 1 Intermediate: Hawaii

  • Focused on various factors:

    • Collectivism: Willingness to sacrifice personal interests for the group.

    • Agency: Sticking to personal opinions despite opposition.

    • Assertiveness: Expressing disagreement strongly.

    • Relatedness: Feeling empathetic towards others in distress.

    • Cohesiveness: Degree of similarity among friends.

Independent-Interdependent Gender Differences

  • Collectivism Results:

    • Koreans and Japanese score higher on collectivism compared to Australians and Americans; no gender effect noted.

  • Agency and Assertiveness Results:

    • Higher scores for Australians and Americans compared to Koreans and Japanese with no gender effects.

  • Relatedness Results:

    • Mainland American women scored the highest, followed by Australian women and Korean women.

    • Gender effects were evident; Japanese participants (men and women) scored lowest.

  • Friend Cohesiveness Results:

    • Highest scores for Hawaiian men and decreased scores moving down to Korean women.

    • Men's friendships showed greater cohesiveness than women's across cultures.

Conclusions of Research Findings

  • Overall, men and women show minimal differences in individualistic/collectivistic orientations.

  • Women demonstrate greater relationality, while men exhibit stronger friendship cohesiveness across diverse cultures.

Sex Role Ideology

Cultural Perspectives on Gender Equality

  • A study by Kalin and Tilby (1978) examined beliefs about gender equality across 14 countries.

  • Findings:

    • Egalitarianism: More prevalent in Protestant, individualistic, and urban cultures.

    • Traditional vs. Modern Views: Variation in attitudes, e.g., the Netherlands vs. India.

    • Males generally displayed more traditional views of gender roles across cultures.

    • Higher egalitarian views linked with Protestantism and urban centers.

Sex Role Ideology Scores

  • Table Summary: Mean scores demonstrate attitudes ranging from highly egalitarian in countries like the Netherlands to traditional in Nigeria and India.

Implications of Transitioning Societies

  • Linkages made between agricultural practices, gender roles, and sociopolitical status.

  • Longer agricultural usage correlated with reduced labor force participation among women.

Cultural Influences on Self-Awareness

Subjective vs. Objective Self-Awareness

  • Study by Kim, Cohen, & Au (2010): Analyzed self-awareness across cultures (Western vs. East Asian).

    • Method: Creativity test with varying feedback from peers.

    • Results indicated that Americans displayed subjective awareness—less impacted by others' perceptions, whereas East Asians were more objectively aware, changing evaluations based on peer feedback.

Memory Imagery Research

  • Cohen and Gunz (2002) investigated how individuals recall memories differently across cultures.

    • East Asians (Asian-Canadians) tended to utilize third-person imagery more than Europeans.

Actual-Ideal Self Discrepancy

  • Heine et al. (2008) explored self-criticism across cultures when evaluating actual vs. ideal selves.

    • Americans became more critical in self-evaluations when in front of a mirror; Japanese were consistent regardless of mirroring.

Theories of Self

Differences in Theories

  • Entity vs. Incremental Theories:

    • Westerners (entity theory) see traits as fixed, whereas Easterners (incremental theory) perceive traits as malleable.

    • Consequential impact on educational systems:

      • Aptitude tests in Western countries vs. Achievement tests in Eastern countries, affecting university admissions.

      • Cultural assumptions influence perceptions of intelligence and opportunity.

Summary of Implications

  • Cultural practices and implicit theories about self contribute equally; education reflects and shapes societal beliefs on intelligence.