Comprehensive Study Guide for Lexicology, Innovative Pedagogy, and Foreign Language Proficiency

Institutional and Administrative Context

• Organization: The materials are prepared for the "World Languages" Institute, Department of "World Languages" at the JSC "Zhumabek Akhmetuly Tashenev University."

• Approval Authority: Approved by the Vice-Rector for Academic Affairs, P.T. Baineieva.

• Target Audience: Students of the educational program "B - Foreign Language: Training of Teachers of Two Foreign Languages."

• Type of Assessment: Complex Examination Test Tasks.

• Compilers and Reviewers:     * Compiler: Master of Science, Senior Lecturer M.M. Islamova.     * Department Chair: PhD F.I. Artykbaeva (discussed at Department Meeting, Protocol № ___).     * Institute Council Chair: Candidate of Philological Sciences (ф.ғ.к.) Zh.N. Botabaeva (reviewed at Institute Council Meeting, Protocol № ___).     * Educational-Methodical Council: Approved by the University's Educational-Methodical Council (Protocol № ___).

Foundations of Lexicology

• Lexicology: The general study of the vocabulary of a language.

• Special Lexicology: Devotes its attention to the description of the characteristic peculiarities of the vocabulary of a given language.

• Historical Lexicology: Discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, meaning, and usage over time.

• Descriptive Lexicology: Studies the functions of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in the system of the language.

• Sociolinguistics: Studies the functions of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in the social system.

• Semasiology: The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the meaning of words.

• Semantics: Denotes the phenomena studied—specifically the meaning of words and phrases.

• Pure Semantics: The study of signs and language, including all sorts of codes.

Morphemic and Stem Structure

• Morpheme: The smallest significant part of a word.

• Root Morpheme: Carries the lexical meaning of the word and serves as its semantic center.

• Affixational Morpheme: Often discussed in lexicology as derivational affixes; they include prefixes and suffixes.

• Derivational Morpheme: Morphemes used to create new words in different word classes; they are discussed in lexicology in the context of derivation.

• Stem: The part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm.

• Free Stem: A stem that fully coincides with the corresponding separate word.

• Bound Stem: A stem that occurs only in a group or at least in two words of the same root; it does not exist as an independent word.

• Derived Stem: A stem containing one or more affixes.

• Prefix: A derivational morpheme standing before the root and modifying its meaning.

• Suffix: A derivational morpheme following the stem, often creating a new word in a different word class.

Classification of Affixes and Word Formation

• Native Affixes: Affixes that existed in the English period or were formed from Old English words.

• Borrowed Affixes: A term that is not strictly exact, as affixes are never borrowed in isolation but only as parts of loan words.

• Hybrids: Words made up of elements derived from two or more different languages.

• Productive Affixes: Affixes and types of word-formation used to form new words in the current period.

• Non-productive Affixes: Affixes that are readily recognized as separate morphemes and possess clear-cut semantic characteristics but are no longer used to form new words.

• Sound Interchange: An alternation in the phonetic composition of the root (e.g., internal vowel shifts).

• Back-formation: The derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from an existing word.

• Distinctive Stress-pattern: Found in homographic, mostly disyllabic nouns and verbs of Romantic origin (e.g., 'object' vs 'ob'ject').

• Sound Imitation (Onomatopoeia): The naming of an action or thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a sound associated with it.

• Telescoping (Blending/Reduplication): The fusion of two words into one, often involving sound overlaps.

Compound Words and Morphological Types

• Compound Words: Words consisting of no less than two free morphemes; the presence of bound morphemes is possible but not necessary.

• Determinatum: The grammatically most important part of a compound word which undergoes inflection.

• Syntactic Compounds: Compounds that conform to grammatical patterns current in present-day English.

• Endocentric Compounds: Compounds where the two constituent elements are clearly related as determinant and determinatum; the whole denotes a species of the genus denoted by the determinatum.

• Initial Abbreviations: Nouns produced by shortening nominal combinations where the initial letters form a new word.

• Root or Morpheme Words: Words containing exactly one free morpheme (e.g., Dog, Hand).

• Derivatives: Words containing no less than two morphemes, of which at least one is bound (e.g., Dogged, Handy, Worker).

• Compound Derivatives: Words consisting of not less than two free morphemes and one bound morpheme referring to the whole combination (e.g., Dog-legged, Left-handed).

Semantics and Figures of Speech

• Monosemantic Word: A word that has only one meaning.

• Polysemantic Word: A word that has more than one meaning.

• Denotatum (Referent): Means either a notion or an actually existing individual thing to which reference is made.

• Lexical Meaning: The naming of a notion or object by means of a definite language system, subject to the influence of grammar and vocabulary peculiarities.

• Direct Meaning: When a word nominates an object without the help of context, in isolation.

• Figurative Meaning: When an object is named and simultaneously characterized through its similarity with another object.

• Main Meaning: The meaning that possesses the highest frequency at the current stage of language development.

• Etymological Meaning: The earliest known meaning of a word.

• Archaic Meaning: A meaning superseded at present by a newer one but still remaining in certain collocations.

• Metaphor: A transfer of name based on the association of similarity (e.g., "the head of the school").

• Metonymy: A shift of names between things that are known to be connected in reality (e.g., "the pulpit" referring to the clergy); based on the contiguity of meaning.

• Hyperbole: An exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally, expressing an intensely emotional attitude.

• Litotes: Expressing the affirmative by the negation of its contrary (e.g., "not bad" or "not half bad").

• Irony: A simulated adoption of the opposite point of view for the purpose of ridicule (e.g., "a nice mess").

• Euphemism: The substitution of words of mild or vague connotations for expressions that are rough or unpleasant (e.g., "queer" for "mad").

• Melioration (Elevation): A semantic shift where words rise in the social scale due to changes in their referents.

• Componential Analysis: Special procedures developed to determine the elementary senses (components) of which a meaning is composed.

Phraseology and Word Combinations

• Phraseology: The study of free word-combinations and phraseological units.

• Idioms: Phraseological units characterized by the integral meaning of the whole, where the meaning of individual components is weakened or lost.

• Motivated Idiom: An idiom where the meaning of each component depends upon the transferred meaning of the whole idiom.

• Demotatived Idioms: Characterized by the total integrity of meaning; the meaning of each component is entirely lost.

• Phraseme: A combination of words where one element has a phraseologically bound meaning.

• Expression: A general term including words, groups of words, and sentences.

• Set Expression: Pronominal substitution of the same elements of a phrase, making a fixed context for each other.

• Variable Element of a Set Expression: An element that is structurally necessary but free to vary lexically.

• Changeable Set Expressions: Expressions that contain the same elements but allow changes in their morphological form and syntactical structure.

• Unchangeable Set Expressions: Expressions admitting no change in either morphology or syntax.

• Proverb: A short, familiar, epigrammatic saying expressing popular wisdom, truth, or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way.

• Clichés: Phrases that have become hackneyed and stale from overuse.

• Familiar Quotations: Quoted phrases where few can accurately name the original play or passage.

Homonyms, Synonyms, and Antonyms

• Homonyms: Words that have the same sound but different meanings and are not connected semantically.

• Homonyms Proper: Words identical in both pronunciation and spelling.

• Homographs: Words different in sound and meaning but accidentally identical in spelling.

• Synonyms: Two or more words that possess almost the same general meaning.

• Ideographical Synonyms: Synonyms that differ in additional implications constituting the semantic components of denotational meaning.

• Stylistic Synonyms: Two words denoting the same thing but differing in stylistic connotation.

• Context-dependent Synonyms: Words similar in meaning only under specific distributional conditions.

• Neutralization: The absence in some context of a phonetic or semantic contrast found elsewhere.

• Absolute Antonyms: Two (rarely more) words of the same language and part of speech, identical in style, whose denotative meanings render contrary concepts.

Innovative Technologies in Education

• Problem-Based Learning (PBL): A student-centered approach where students solve real-world problems to develop critical thinking, analytical research, and problem-solving skills.

• Flipped Classroom: A method where students learn new content at home (e.g., via videos/readings) and apply it in class through activities and discussions guided by the teacher.

• Collaborative/Cooperative Learning: Focuses on students working together in groups to solve problems, enhancing social skills, teamwork, empathy, and collective self-esteem.

• Experiential Learning: The primary goal is learning through direct experience and reflection on that experience.

• Game-Based Learning (Gamification): Encourages student engagement through interactive, game-like elements and rewards.

• Concept/Mind Mapping: Tools that help students visually organize, connect, and visualize relationships between ideas to support creative thinking.

• Peer Teaching: An instructional method where students learn from each other by teaching concepts.

• Blended Learning: The combination of traditional face-to-face classroom methods with online digital resources.

• Design Thinking/Design Sprint: A short, intensive, creative process to solve complex problems and create prototypes.

• Self-Directed Learning: Promotes students taking responsibility for their own learning process and pace.

• Technology-Enhanced Learning: Improves education by integrating digital tools and internet resources into teaching.

• Formative Assessment: Used to monitor student progress and provide feedback during the learning process rather than just at the end.

• Inquiry-Based Learning: Encourages curiosity by having students ask questions and investigate topics.

• Scaffolding: Providing temporary support to help students reach higher levels of understanding before they work independently.

Research in Language Methodology

• Descriptive Research: Deals with "what to teach."

• Experimental Research: Deals with "how to teach."

• Instrumental Research: Also deals with the mechanics of "how to teach."

• Methodology Origins: New methods spring up depending on the aims of teaching and learning a foreign language at different periods.

Second Foreign Language (German) Proficiency

• Verb Conjugation (Präsens):     * $ich \rightarrow bin, reise, stehe...auf, lüfte, verstehe, habe, komme$     * $du \rightarrow bist, lernst, hast$     * $wir \rightarrow sind, übersetzen, wollen, müssen, studieren, fahren$     * $Sie \rightarrow sind, heißen$     * $er/sie/es \rightarrow ist, führt, lernt, liest, spricht$     * $ihr \rightarrow sollt, versteht$

• Prepositions of Location and Movement:     * $in$: "Ich wohne in Schymkent."     * $aus$: "Ich komme aus Almaty."     * $bei$: "Ich wohne bei meinem Bruder."     * $nach$: "Ich fahre nach Berlin."     * $an$: "Die Stunde ist zu Ende; der Unterricht beginnt um neun Uhr."     * $auf$: "Ich stehe früh auf."

• Noun and Article Usage:     * Masculine: $der \, Unterricht$     * Genitive: $Wohnung \, meines \, Bruders$     * Accusative: $den \, Film, \, den \, Schüler$

• Vocabulary Themes:     * Family: $Mutter, \, Bruder, \, Tante, \, Verwandte$     * Time expressions: $morgens, \, früh, \, sonntags, \, pünktlich, \, im \, Fluge$     * Appearance: $gross \, von \, Wuchs, \, breitschultrig, \, braunes \, Haar, \, warmherzige \, Frau$

Advanced English Grammar and Usage (C-Level)

• Conditionals:     * Third Conditional: "If mother hadn't taken him… he would never have become…"     * Subjunctive: "But for your help, we should not have finished in time."

• Prepositions:     * $of/about$: "approve of," "take care of," "envious of," "fond of."     * $to$: "kind to," "attention to," "proposed to."     * $at/in$: "at the corner," "in the far distance."

• Verb Forms and Gerunds:     * Infinitive vs Gerund: "used to go riding," "afraid of falling," "remember seeing."     * Passive Voice: "supposed to have been inspired," "was made to say."

• Numerical Data (Historical and Statistical):     * Sheep raising began approximately $8,000$ years ago.     * Golfers in the US increased from $24.7$ million in $1994$ to $26.4$ million in $1997$.