Untitled Flashcard Set

The Enlightenment: An intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individualism instead of tradition.

Montesquieu: Philosopher who argued for the separation of powers in government.

Voltaire: Writer and philosopher known for advocating freedom of speech and religion.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Thinker who believed in the social contract and that people are inherently good.

Adam Smith: Economist who introduced the idea of capitalism and free markets.

Divine right vs Mandate of Heaven: Divine right justifies kings ruling by God’s will; Mandate of Heaven is a Chinese concept where rulers must be just to maintain their right to govern.

Thomas Hobbes: Philosopher who believed in a strong central authority to prevent chaos in society.

Enlightened monarchs: Rulers who applied Enlightenment ideas, promoting reforms and progress while maintaining power.

The American Revolution: The conflict (1775-1783) where American colonies won independence from Britain.

French and Indian War: A war (1754-1763) in North America between Britain and France, impacting British colonial policies.

Revenue Act/Stamp Act/Tea Act: British laws imposed taxes on the American colonies, leading to unrest.

Thomas Paine: Author who encouraged independence from Britain through his pamphlet "Common Sense."

Declaration of Independence: Document declaring the American colonies' independence from Britain (1776).

French Revolution: A period of radical social and political change in France (1789-1799).

Louis XVI: King of France during the French Revolution; later executed.

Estates-General: An assembly representing the three estates of French society before the Revolution.

Declaration of Rights of Man: Influential document from the French Revolution proclaiming individual rights.

National Assembly: The revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate in France.

Maximilien Robespierre: Leader during the Revolution known for his role in the Reign of Terror.

Napoleon Bonaparte: French military leader who rose to prominence post-Revolution and became emperor.

Napoleonic Codes: A legal code established by Napoleon ensuring equality and property rights.

Congress of Vienna: Meeting after Napoleon's defeat to restore European balance of power in 1815.

Haiti Revolution: Slave uprising that led to Haiti's independence from France (1804).

Toussaint L’Ouverture: Leader of the Haitian Revolution, known for his military and political acumen.

Simon Bolivar: South American military leader who fought for independence from Spanish rule.

Jose de San Martin: Liberator of Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish rule.

John VI: King of Portugal who fled to Brazil during Napoleonic invasions.

Pedro II: Emperor of Brazil who oversaw modernization and abolition of slavery.

Miguel Hidalgo: Mexican priest who called for independence from Spain in 1810.

Jose Morelos: Mexican revolutionary leader who continued Hidalgo's fight for independence.

Treaty of Cordoba: Document recognizing Mexican independence from Spanish rule in 1821.

Porfirio Diaz: Mexican general who became president and was known for modernization at the expense of social justice.

Industrial Revolution: A period of great industrial and technological change starting in the late 18th century.

Domestic system: Early manufacturing system where goods were produced at home rather than in factories.

James Watt/steam engine: Inventor who improved the steam engine, revolutionizing transportation and industry.

Free-market system (capitalism): Economic system where prices are determined by unrestricted competition between privately owned businesses.

Karl Marx: Philosopher who critiqued capitalism and proposed socialism based on class struggle.

Socialism: Economic system where the means of production are owned and regulated by the community.

Communism: Political ideology advocating for a classless society and common ownership of resources.

Factory Act of 1883: British law aimed at improving conditions for workers in factories.

Labor unions: Organizations formed by workers to protect their rights and interests.

Alexander II: Tsar of Russia who enacted reforms, including the emancipation of serfs.

Emancipation Edict: 1861 decree by Alexander II freeing serfs in Russia.

Social Darwinists: Belief that societies evolve similar to species through natural selection, often used to justify imperialism.

“White Man’s Burden”: The idea that Western nations had an obligation to civilize non-Western societies.

British East India Company: Trading company that ruled parts of India until the British government took control.

Sepoy Mutiny: Rebellion of Indian soldiers against British rule in 1857.

Indian National Congress: Political party founded to demand greater Indian participation in government.

Opium War: Conflict between Britain and China over trade imbalances; led to loss of Chinese sovereignty.

Treaty of Nanjing: First unequal treaty between Britain and China, ending the Opium War.

Taiping Rebellion: Massive civil war in China against the Qing dynasty, fueled by social unrest.

Sino-Japanese War: Conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea.

Spheres of influence: Areas in China where foreign nations had exclusive trading rights.

Boxer Rebellion: Anti-foreign uprising in China (1899-1901) aimed at expelling foreigners.

Commodore Matthew Perry: U.S. Navy officer who opened Japan to the West in 1853.

Meiji Restoration: Period of rapid modernization and industrialization in Japan starting in 1868.

Boer War: Conflict between British forces and Afrikaner settlers in South Africa (1899-1902).

Muhammad Ali: Leader in Egypt who modernized the military and economy in the early 19th century.

Suez Canal: Man-made waterway in Egypt completed in 1869, connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea.

The Berlin Conference: 1884-1885 meeting where European powers divided Africa among themselves.

Monroe Doctrine: U.S. policy opposing European colonization in the Americas (1823).

Panama Canal: Waterway in Panama opened in 1914, crucial for global trade and transportation.

Spanish-American War: Conflict in 1898 leading to U.S. territorial gains in the Caribbean and Pacific.

Triple Alliance: Military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy before WWI.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand: His assassination sparked the beginning of World War I.

Central Powers: Coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria during WWI.

Lusitania: British passenger ship sunk by a German submarine, influencing U.S. entry into WWI.

Zimmermann telegram: Secret message proposing an alliance between Germany and Mexico against the U.S.

Treaty of Versailles: Peace treaty that ended WWI, imposing heavy reparations on Germany.

Fourteen Points: President Wilson's plan for peace and international cooperation after WWI.

League of Nations: International organization established after WWI to promote peace (failed to prevent WWII).

Russian Revolution: 1917 revolutions that dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the rise of the Bolsheviks.

Czar Nicholas: Last Emperor of Russia, abdicated during the 1917 Revolution.

Bolsheviks: Radical socialist group that seized power in Russia during the 1917 Revolution.

Vladimir Lenin: Leader of the Bolsheviks; established a communist government in Russia.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Agreement that ended Russia's involvement in WWI, giving land to Germany.

Leon Trotsky: Revolutionary leader and key figure in the Bolshevik government.

Red Army: The military force of the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War.

New Economic Policy (NEP): Temporary economic policy in the USSR allowing some private enterprise.

Joseph Stalin: Leader of the Soviet Union following Lenin, known for totalitarian rule and industrialization.

Five-Year Plans: Series of ambitious economic goals set by Stalin to accelerate industrial growth.

Collectivization: Soviet policy of consolidating individual land and labor into collective farms.

USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, a federal socialist state established in 1922.

Great Depression: Severe worldwide economic downturn beginning in 1929.

Fascism: Authoritarian political ideology emphasizing nationalism and strong central control.

Nationalism: Strong identification with one’s own nation and support for its interests.

Benito Mussolini: Italian dictator and founder of fascism.

Blackshirts: Mussolini's paramilitary forces used to intimidate opponents.

Weimar Republic: German government established after WWI, known for political instability.

The National Socialist Party (Nazi): Political party led by Adolf Hitler, promoting fascist and anti-Semitic policies.

Adolf Hitler: Führer of Nazi Germany, instigated WWII and the Holocaust.

Third Reich: Nazi regime in Germany from 1933 to 1945.

Francisco Franco: Spanish general who led the Nationalists to victory in the Spanish Civil War.

Munich Conference of 1938: Meeting where Britain and France allowed Nazi Germany to annex parts of Czechoslovakia.

Neville Chamberlain: British Prime Minister who advocated appeasement toward Hitler.

Appeasement: Policy of conceding to aggressive demands to maintain peace.

Nazi-Soviet Pact: Non-aggression agreement between Germany and the USSR in 1939 prior to WWII.

Blitzkrieg: Military strategy involving fast attacks to overwhelm opponents, used by Nazi Germany.

Winston Churchill: British Prime Minister during WWII known for his leadership and oratory.

Battle of Britain: Air campaign in 1940 where the British defended against German bombing.

Pearl Harbor: U.S. naval base attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, leading to U.S. entry into WWII.

Manhattan Project: Secret U.S. project to develop the atomic bomb during WWII.

D-day: Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944, pivotal in liberating Europe from Nazi control.

President Truman: U.S. President who made the decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan to end WWII.

Hiroshima/Nagasaki: Japanese cities where the U.S. dropped atomic bombs in August 1945.

Holocaust: The genocide of six million Jews and millions of others by the Nazis during WWII.

Marshall Plan: U.S. initiative to aid Western Europe’s economic recovery after WWII.

United Nations: International organization established in 1945 to promote peace and cooperation.

Cold War: Period of geopolitical tension between the USSR and the U.S. after WWII.

Yalta/Postdam conferences: Meetings of Allied leaders to discuss post-war Europe; shaped the Cold War.

Berlin blockade: Soviet blockade of Berlin from 1948-1949, leading to Allied airlift.

Truman Doctrine: U.S. policy to support countries resisting communism during the Cold War.

Containment: U.S. strategy to prevent the spread of communism abroad.

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization, military alliance formed in 1949 for collective defense.

Warsaw Pact: Military alliance of communist nations in response to NATO, founded in 1955.

Iron Curtain: Metaphor for the division between Soviet-controlled and Western-controlled areas in Europe.

Bandung Conference: 1955 meeting of non-aligned nations in Indonesia to promote solidarity.

Chinese Revolution of 1911: Overthrow of the Qing dynasty, leading to the establishment of the Republic of China.

Kuomintang (KMT): The Nationalist Party of China, led by Chiang Kai-shek.

Chiang Kai-shek: Leader of the KMT and the Republic of China, opposed communism.

Mao Zedong: Chinese communist leader who established the People’s Republic of China in 1949.

People’s Republic of China: State established by the communists after the civil war, replacing the KMT.

Great Leap Forward: Mao’s campaign to rapidly transform China’s economy through collectivization in the late 1950s.

Cultural Revolution: Campaign initiated by Mao in the 1960s to enforce communist ideology and eliminate opposition.

Tiananmen Square Massacre: 1989 crackdown on pro-democracy protesters in Beijing.

General MacArthur: U.S. General who oversaw the occupation of Japan after WWII.

Batista Dictatorship: Authoritarian regime in Cuba (1952-1959) overthrown by Fidel Castro.

Fidel Castro: Cuban revolutionary leader who established a communist state in Cuba.

Cuban Revolution: The 1959 revolution that led to Castro's rise to power.

Bay of Pigs Invasion: Failed U.S. attempt to overthrow Castro in Cuba in 1961.

Cuban Missile Crisis: 1962 confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over missiles in Cuba.

“Good Neighbor”: U.S. policy of promoting friendly relations with Latin American countries.

Mikhail Gorbachev: Soviet leader whose reforms (Glasnost, Perestroika) led to the end of the Cold War.

Glasnost: Policy of openness in the USSR allowing more freedom of information and speech.

Perestroika: Economic reform policy in the Soviet Union aimed at restructuring the economy.

Muslim League: Political party in India advocating for the rights of Muslims, later demanding a separate state.

Amritsar Massacre: British troops killed hundreds of Indian civilians in 1919, fueling anti-colonial sentiment.

Mohandas Gandhi: Leader of Indian independence movement, promoted nonviolent resistance.

Passive Resistance: Nonviolent protest strategy used by Gandhi against British rule.

Rwanda Genocide: Mass murder of Tutsi by Hutu extremists in 1994.

Apartheid: Institutional racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa until the 1990s.

Nelson Mandela: Anti-apartheid revolutionary who became South Africa’s first black president.

Balfour Declaration (1917): British statement supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Pogroms: Organized violence against Jewish communities in Eastern Europe in the late 19th century.

1948 Arab-Israeli War: Conflict after Israel’s proclamation of independence, resulting in significant territorial changes.

Six-Day War: 1967 conflict where Israel gained territories from its Arab neighbors in a short time.

Palestine Liberation Organization: Political and paramilitary organization representing Palestinian interests.

Reza Shah Pahlavi: Modernizing monarch of Iran who ruled until 1941.

Iranian Revolution: The 1979 overthrow of the Shah, leading to the establishment of an Islamic Republic.

Ayatollah Khomeini: Leader of the Iranian Revolution, turned Iran into a theocracy.

Iran-Iraq War: Conflict from 1980 to 1988 between Iran and Iraq, causing immense casualties.

OPEC: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, controlling oil production and prices.

Saddam Hussein: President of Iraq, known for his authoritarian rule and wars against Iran and Kuwait.

Persian Gulf War: 1990-1991 conflict triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, leading to U.S.-led coalition response.

NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement, reducing trade barriers between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.

European Union: Political and economic union of European countries aimed at promoting integration and cooperation.