Segundo Parcial - Historia de Guatemala

I. End of Mexican Occupation and Formation of the Central American Federation (1821-1824)

Following the news of Agustín de Iturbide's fall in Mexico, Gabino Gaínza's successor, Gabino Filísola, an Italian-born leader appointed by Iturbide to direct the "División Protectora de México," convened a National Constituent Assembly in Central America, as stipulated in the Act of Independence. Filísola intended to remain in Central America, which caused conflict among the provinces. Costa Rica, for example, refused to send representatives to the Congress until the Mexican Army left the region. Filísola's troops were frequently involved in disturbances, leading to growing rejection of his presence. On July 28, 1823, the Assembly successfully negotiated the withdrawal of Mexican troops, paying them $29,000.00 pesos.

The National Constituent Assembly and Early Decisions: The Assembly first met on June 24, 1823, in the Main Hall of the University of San Carlos de Guatemala, with José Matías Delgado elected as its first president. Sessions officially began on July 1, 1823, leading to several key decisions:

• Declaration of definitive independence from Mexico and Spain.

• Manumission of Black slaves. This was officially codified in the Federal Constitution of 1824, making Central America a region where slavery was abolished far earlier than in the United States.

• Initiation of the drafting of the Federal Constitution.

• Appointment of a triumvirate to lead the Executive branch until the Constitution was promulgated.

• Establishment of Catholicism as the official religion.

• Naming the region "Provincias Unidas del Centro de América".

Early Governments and Instability: The First Triumvirate consisted of Manuel José Arce y Fagoada, Juan Vicente Villacorta, and Pedro Molina. This period saw an attempted uprising on September 14, 1823, led by Captain Rafael Ariza Torres, who proclaimed himself commander general of the Fixed Battalion. Though Ariza fled, this incident compromised the power of the First Triumvirate, leading to its resignation and the appointment of a Second Triumvirate comprising José Santiago Milla, Manuel José Arce y Fagoaga, and Juan Vicente Villacorta.

The Federal Constitution and its Ideals: The Assembly debated between a federal and a centralist government, with liberals favoring federalism and conservatives supporting a central system. The federal government structure envisioned a head of state, a Legislative Assembly, and a Supreme Court for each state, along with a federal president, federal congress, and federal Supreme Court. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Central America was approved on November 22, 1824. Its articles declared the people of the Federal Republic of Central America "sovereign and independent," emphasizing liberty, equality, security, and property. It mandated that all inhabitants were obligated to obey laws, serve the country, and contribute to public expenses. Crucially, it stated that "Every man is free in the Republic. No one who takes refuge under its laws can be a slave, nor can anyone who traffics in slaves be a citizen". The Constitution allowed for the formation of new states within the federation, provided they met certain population and contiguity criteria.

The federal capital was established in Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción, and La Antigua Guatemala became the capital of the State of Guatemala. Manuel José Arce was elected as the first federal president on April 30, 1825, winning against José Cecilio del Valle. Arce faced early problems with Juan Barrundia, the Head of State of Guatemala, concerning commemorative festivities, the location of the state capital, and the protection of a French officer. These tensions escalated, leading to Barrundia's arrest in September 1825.

Beginning of the Central American Civil War (1826-1827): In 1826, Manuel José Arce was accused of allying with conservatives to dissolve the Federal Congress and Supreme Court. He sent troops to El Salvador, leading to a confrontation at Arrazola where he defeated the Salvadorans. In 1827, José Justo Milla led a coup in Honduras against Dionisio de Herrera, leading to conflicts with Francisco Morazán, who eventually rose to Head of State. The unrest in El Salvador and Honduras led to Arce's resignation, with Vice President Mariano Beltranena taking his place. Morazán, after the Battle of Las Charcas, besieged the federal capital, capturing Arce and Beltranena. He pursued conservatives and expelled Archbishop Ramón Casaus y Torres. José Francisco Barrundia governed between 1829 and 1830. Subsequent presidents of the Federation included Morazán and José Cecilio del Valle.

Mariano Gálvez's Government in Guatemala (1831-1838): Mariano Gálvez, a liberal, was elected Head of State of Guatemala for the 1831-1835 period and reelected until 1838, when he was overthrown by Rafael Carrera. His government implemented rapid changes across economic, educational, legal, and religious sectors.

• Economic: Guaranteed food supply, fostered agricultural production (importing machinery), founded agrarian communities on borders to secure territory, and initiated land registration for tax collection (though this disadvantaged indigenous people who couldn't prove ownership). He also improved Atlantic navigation infrastructure, enabling a port in Río Dulce (Livingston). Gálvez controversially contracted an English company, the "Compañía Comercial y Agrícola de las Costas Orientales de la América Central," which aimed to develop eastern Guatemala but would have given England control over more than half the country; this plan fortunately failed due to the company's bankruptcy.

• Religious: Implemented anti-clerical policies, legalizing civil marriage and divorce, supporting freedom of worship, and removing the Catholic Church's control over education, hospitals, and cemeteries. He also confiscated Church property. Archbishop Ramón Casáus y Torres and religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, Recoletos) were expelled from the region in 1829-1830 for conspiring against the government.

• Educational: Promoted education, especially humanistic sciences. He founded a normal school and a girls' school, approved educational reform, and organized commissions to document archaeological sites.

• Legal: Tried to implement Livingston Codes, which sought to modernize justice through jury systems and protecting the accused, but these failed due to the public's lack of education.

Gálvez's rapid reforms and an epidemic of cholera led to a decline in popularity, paving the way for the conservatives under Rafael Carrera. Gálvez resigned on February 1, 1838.

Dissolution of the Federation (1838-1839): The federal Congress decreed on May 30, 1838, that states were free to constitute themselves as they wished. The Congress suspended sessions on July 20, 1838, and no new elections were called for federal authorities. Morazán's presidential term ended on February 1, 1839, and new elections were not convened. This marked the end of the Federation. Miguel García Granados later attributed the Federation's dissolution to the radical liberal "fiebres," arguing that slower reforms would have better prepared the nation. The concept of "Centroamérica" as a single political entity started to shift to a geographical one, with individual states defining their own political paths.

II. The State of Los Altos: Repeated Attempts at Separation (1805-1849)

The region of Los Altos, centered in Quetzaltenango, experienced significant economic growth from the mid-18th century, particularly in textile and wheat production. After the 1773 Santa Marta earthquakes destroyed Santiago de Guatemala (Antigua), many merchants relocated to Quetzaltenango, transforming it into the second most important commercial and Hispanic settlement in the province. This influx of Spanish and criollo merchants led to land acquisition, which displaced indigenous populations and caused price increases, sparking local uprisings.

Quetzaltenango's Rise and Conflicts with the Capital: Quetzaltenango had both an indigenous and a Spanish municipal council (Ayuntamiento). The Spanish Ayuntamiento was authorized in December 1805 and elected its first council in January 1806. This dual system continued until José María Reyna Barrios unified them at the end of the 19th century. The establishment of the Consulado de Comercio in Nueva Guatemala in 1793 aimed to facilitate trade but quickly became a monopolistic entity dominated by merchants from the new capital, severely affecting Quetzaltenango by blocking direct trade and communication routes. This deepened the resentment of Los Altos' criollos and ladinos against Guatemala City's monopolistic practices.

Attempts at Separation:

1. First Attempt: Cortes de Cádiz (1810-1812) - Intendencia. Los Altos sought direct representation in the Cortes of Cádiz, arguing that as an intendancy-sized region, it deserved its own deputy. José Montiel, their elected representative, carried a list of petitions, including building a Pacific port, liberalizing trade (especially wheat and textiles), protecting against English textile contraband, implementing indigenous assimilation policies, privatizing underutilized ejidal lands for commercial exploitation, and establishing an intendancy, bishopric, seminary, and audiencia in Quetzaltenango. This attempt failed as Montiel arrived late, and Fernando VII's return dissolved the Cortes.

2. Second Attempt: Mexican Empire (1822) - Provincia. On January 29, 1822, Quetzaltenango declared it did not recognize Guatemala's central government and ratified its adhesion to the Mexican Empire. Cirilo Flores, Los Altos' deputy to Iturbide's congress, requested the region be made a province separate from Guatemala. This attempt also failed with Iturbide's fall.

3. Third Attempt: Central American Federation (1838) - Sexto Estado. The 1824 Federal Constitution allowed for new states, which Los Altos aimed to utilize. In May 1836, a local newspaper proposed forming a state comprising Quetzaltenango, Totonicapán, Sololá, and Suchitepéquez. On February 2, 1838, Los Altos proclaimed its separation and formed a provisional government with Marcelo Molina, José Gálvez, and José Aguilar. Francisco Morazán, a strong liberal, supported the creation of the State of Los Altos, with Quetzaltenango as its capital. The new state would include Quetzaltenango, Totonicapán, Sololá, Suchitepéquez, Huehuetenango, and Soconusco. However, this project lacked support from the indigenous population, who feared detrimental measures like the privatization of communal lands. Rafael Carrera, a conservative who protected indigenous rights, intervened. On April 13, 1839, he occupied Guatemala City, leading to the conservative regime. The conservative government immediately declared Guatemala a free and sovereign state, ending the federal pact and thus the legal basis for Los Altos' existence. In 1840, Carrera violently reincorporated Los Altos into Guatemala, famously executing the entire municipal corporation of Quetzaltenango on April 2, 1840.

4. Fourth Attempt: New Country (1848). During Carrera's absence from power, on August 26, 1848, Quetzaltenango, with support from El Salvador's president Doroteo Vasconcelos and the Cruz brothers, proclaimed separation from Guatemala. A provisional government was elected on September 5, led by Fernando Antonio Martínez. This "Sixth State" lasted until May 8, 1849, when Carrera re-entered the capital, ending the separatism. By May 1854, Quetzaltenango swore loyalty to Carrera as lifelong president.

Despite these failures, Los Altos became the "cradle of liberalism" in Guatemala, fostering opposition to the capital's conservatives due to their monopolistic trade practices. The first four liberal presidents, Justo Rufino Barrios, Manuel Lisandro Barillas, José María Reina Barrios, and Manuel Estrada Cabrera, were from Los Altos, reflecting this strong regional liberal tradition. The region's flag and shield, featuring the quetzal, predated the national symbols, with the quetzal on the national shield originating from the Los Altos emblem.

III. The Conservative Period (1838/39-1871)

This period began with the dissolution of the Central American Federation and Rafael Carrera's rise to power, marking a return to colonial-era practices and conservative principles. It is known as the "Régimen de los 30 años," though Carrera was not continuously in power.

Key Leaders and Political Events:

• Mariano Rivera y Paz (1839-1841; 1842-1844) served as Head of State, working to stabilize the country amid internal insurrections (Los Altos, Oriente).

• Rafael Carrera emerged as the dominant figure. Born in humble origins, educated by a parish priest, he was a natural leader and caudillo. He was the de facto leader of the militias, pacifying the country.

• Foundation of the Republic of Guatemala (March 21, 1847): Carrera, as Head of State, formally created the Republic of Guatemala. This act defined Guatemala's borders and republican government, establishing it as an independent nation recognized by other countries. This date is crucial as it marked Guatemala's independent status, departing from its historical unity with Central America. Carrera is considered the first President of the Republic of Guatemala.

• Battle of La Arada (February 2, 1851): Carrera decisively defeated invading liberal forces from El Salvador and Honduras, who aimed to annex eastern Guatemalan territories (Jutiapa, Jalapa, Chiquimula). Despite being outnumbered three to one, Carrera's strategic genius led to a significant victory, studied in military academies worldwide. This victory solidified Carrera's military leadership and preserved Guatemala's territorial integrity.

• Lifelong Presidency: Carrera briefly left power in 1848 but returned in 1851. In 1854, the conservative-dominated Assembly named him "Presidente Vitalicio" (lifelong president), a position he held until his death on April 14, 1865.

• Vicente Cerna (1865-1871) succeeded Carrera, but lacked his charisma. His re-election in 1869 was controversial, leading to widespread discontent and liberal uprisings.

Key Policies and Characteristics:

• Religious Control (Concordato with the Holy See): Signed in 1852 and ratified in 1854, this agreement established Catholicism as the official religion, granted the Catholic Church control over education, and allowed bishops to censor publications that contradicted Catholic doctrine. While other religions existed, they could only be practiced privately.

• Education: Education was placed under the Church's charge, reverting to colonial models. The "Ley Pavón" (1852) ensured instruction aligned with Catholic doctrine and was controlled by parishes and municipalities, remaining free and obligatory but not secular.

• Indigenous Policy: Carrera re-established the Laws of the Indies, which protected traditional indigenous rights, especially regarding land possession and labor. This contrasts with the liberal approach of assimilation. Protection for indigenous people declined under Cerna.

• Economic Shift (Cochineal to Coffee): As demand for cochineal (red dye) declined internationally due to chemical dyes, Carrera initiated the cultivation of coffee. Inspired by Costa Rica's success, initial attempts to grow coffee in warm lowland areas failed, leading to successful cultivation in the highlands (e.g., Antigua, Quetzaltenango) by 1860-1865. Coffee became the main export and source of government revenue.

• Infrastructure: Construction of Teatro Carrera and defensive forts (San José de Buena Vista, Matamoros) to protect Guatemala City from invasion.

• Belize Dispute (Wyke-Aycinena Treaty, 1859): Guatemala ceded territory to Britain, with a condition for Britain to build a road to the Atlantic. This clause was never fulfilled by Britain, leading to ongoing disputes over Belize.

Fall of the Conservative Regime: The growing discontent with Cerna's government, exacerbated by the decapitation of liberal leader Serapio Cruz (a former Carrera ally) in 1870, fueled the liberal revolution. Miguel García Granados, a deputy who condemned Cruz's death, was imprisoned but then exiled with British assistance, from where he organized the liberal movement.

IV. The National Central American War (1856-1857)

This conflict was driven by American expansionist ideologies and economic interests in Central America, particularly concerning the inter-oceanic transit route.

American Expansionist Ideologies:

• Monroe Doctrine (1823): Articulated by President James Monroe and John Quincy Adams, stating "America for Americans." This doctrine opposed European intervention in the Americas, but implicitly laid the groundwork for US influence in the region, rather than true continental unity. It marked the beginning of US imperialism.

• Manifest Destiny: This doctrine promoted the belief that European-Americans were superior and divinely ordained to expand across the continent, "civilizing" indigenous populations and "mestizos" to the south. It justified territorial expansion and cultural assimilation, viewing other cultures as inferior.

Geopolitical Context:

• British Influence: England sought commercial and strategic control over Central American territories, including Belize, the Bay Islands (Roatán, Guanaja, Utila), the Mosquitia region, Puerto San Juan del Norte, and Isla del Tigre. The British employed a "stepping stones" strategy to secure ports globally. The Industrial Revolution in England drove a need for raw materials and expanded markets, leading to aggressive trade policies, including naval blockades in Central American ports.

• Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850): Signed between the US and UK, it aimed to neutralize competition over a potential inter-oceanic canal in Central America, stating neither country would gain exclusive control or build fortifications. This treaty was signed without Central American consultation.

• California Gold Rush (1848-1855): The discovery of gold in California spurred a massive migration (the "forty-niners"). This created an urgent need for faster transit routes between the US East and West Coasts, highlighting Central America's strategic importance for a canal (Panama or Nicaragua).

• Cornelius Vanderbilt: His Accessory Transit Company held a monopoly on the Nicaragua transit route, which involved river, lake, and overland travel.

William Walker's Filibuster Invasion:

• William Walker: Born in Tennessee, he was a doctor, lawyer, and journalist. He was a pro-slavery Southerner who aimed to create a slave empire in Central America to annex to the Southern US. He was a "filibuster" (mercenary). His first failed attempt was invading Baja California and Sonora in 1853 to separate them from Mexico.

• Involvement in Nicaragua: In 1854, Nicaragua was embroiled in a civil war between Legitimists (conservatives) led by Fruto Chamorro and Democrats (liberals) led by Francisco Castellón. Castellón controversially hired Walker to help defeat the Legitimists, legalizing the entry of foreign troops.

• Walker's Rule: Walker took Granada on October 13, 1855, and installed Patricio Rivas as provisional president, appointing himself General-in-Chief of the Army. He later orchestrated fraudulent elections and declared himself president of Nicaragua on June 29, 1856. As president, he declared English the official language and re-established slavery. His flag's motto, "Five or None," explicitly indicated his ambition to conquer all five Central American nations.

• Regional Resistance: Seeing Walker's expansionist goals, Cornelius Vanderbilt, whose transit company was threatened by Walker's financers (Cornelius Garrison and Charles Morgan), supported Central American resistance. The US government also rejected Walker's activities. Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala signed a Treaty of Alliance on July 18, 1856, to expel him.

  • Guatemala's Role: Rafael Carrera sent troops led by Mariano Paredes (who died of cholera in Granada) and later by Colonel José Víctor Zavala, who directed actions against Walker.

  • Costa Rica's Role: Led by General José María Cañas, Costa Rican forces, including national hero Juan Santamaría, who burned the Mesón de Guerra in Rivas, contributed to Walker's defeat in the Battle of Rivas.

• Walker's Defeat and Death: Walker surrendered on May 1, 1857, and left Central America. However, he made several attempts to return (November 1857, April 1858, June 1860). In his fourth attempt, he attacked Santa Bárbara fortress in Trujillo, Honduras. He was eventually captured by British forces (who sought to enforce the return of the Bay Islands to Honduras, disrupted by Walker) and handed over to Honduran authorities. William Walker was executed by firing squad in Trujillo, Honduras, on September 12, 1860.

V. The Liberal Reform (1871-1944)

The Liberal Reform, starting on June 30, 1871, marked a significant shift in Guatemalan history, characterized by profound changes across all sectors of society. It is considered a revolution due to its comprehensive transformation.

Antecedents and Rise to Power: Growing discontent with Vicente Cerna's conservative government, especially after his controversial re-election in 1869 against José Víctor Zavala, fueled liberal uprisings. General Serapio Cruz, an insurgent, was captured and decapitated, a brutal act that galvanized opposition. Miguel García Granados, a liberal deputy, was imprisoned for condemning this act but later exiled, where he allied with Justo Rufino Barrios to organize the liberal invasion from Mexico. Liberal troops entered Guatemala in March 1871, taking Tacaná and San Marcos. On June 3, 1871, in Patzicía, the liberal leaders signed an act disavowing Cerna's government and appointing Miguel García Granados as provisional president. On June 29, liberal forces defeated Cerna's troops at San Lucas Sacatepéquez. On June 30, 1871, liberal troops entered Guatemala City, marking the triumph of the Liberal Revolution. José Víctor Zavala helped ensure a peaceful transition, preventing looting.

Key Leaders and Ideology:

• Miguel García Granados (Provisional President, 1871-1873): Born in Spain, he became a liberal after studying abroad and served as a key leader and theoretician of the revolution. He laid the groundwork for secular education, abolished the tithe, and designed the national flag and shield.

• Justo Rufino Barrios ("The Reformer," President 1873-1885): A military leader from San Marcos, he succeeded García Granados. He championed Morazán's ideal of Central American union and initiated a forceful attempt at reunification in 1885, leading to his death in the Battle of Chalchuapa, El Salvador, on April 2, 1885.

• Positivism ("Order and Progress"): Liberalism in this period was heavily influenced by Auguste Comte's positivism, emphasizing material development and economic progress through order. This philosophy justified strong, often authoritarian, governments to achieve modernization.

• Later Liberal Presidents: Manuel Lisandro Barillas (1885-1892), José María Reina Barrios (1892-1898), Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898-1920), and Jorge Ubico (1931-1944) continued the liberal project, although some were notable dictators.

Major Reforms and Changes:

1. Political Reforms:

   • 1879 Liberal Constitution: Established clear division of powers and was in effect until 1944.

   • Civil Registry: Replaced Church-controlled parish records for births, deaths, and marriages; also introduced divorce.

   • Property Registry: Crucial for economic development, allowing land to be used as collateral for loans. This also led to the expropriation of communal indigenous lands that lacked formal titles, deeming them national lands.

   • Border Demarcation: Systematically demarcated national and municipal borders, often carried out by military engineers from the Escuela Politécnica.

2. Economic Reforms:

   • Coffee Boom: Coffee became the primary export, significantly boosted by the new banking system (e.g., Banco de Occidente, founded in Quetzaltenango) and the property registry, which facilitated access to credit for coffee growers. Coffee production largely concentrated in the highlands.

   • Banana Cultivation: Driven by the need to finance railroad construction, banana cultivation began, especially by the United Fruit Company (UFCO). UFCO's development of railroads and port infrastructure (Puerto Barrios, linking Atlantic coast) was crucial for both banana and coffee exports. While UFCO brought infrastructure, it faced criticism for not paying due taxes.

   • Fiscal Code: Reorganized the tax system, shifting revenue collection from tithes to export taxes, particularly on coffee.

   • Currency Reform: José María Orellana (president 1921-1926) replaced the unstable peso with the quetzal in 1925, establishing a stable currency backed by a reserve.

3. Social and Cultural Reforms:

   • Secularization of State and Church: This was a central tenet, aiming to reduce the Catholic Church's political and social influence. It included establishing civil marriage and divorce, promoting freedom of worship (allowing Protestant churches to operate publicly), confiscating Church properties ("manos muertas" lands), and transferring control of cemeteries and healthcare services to the state.

   • Education: Prioritized as fundamental for national progress. Education became secular, free, and compulsory at the primary level. New educational institutions were created, including pre-primary schools (Kindergarten, based on German model), secondary schools (training teachers as well as bachelors), and technical schools (Escuela de Artes y Oficios). The Escuela Politécnica (founded 1873) trained military engineers and topographers crucial for national infrastructure and border demarcation. The Pontificia Universidad de San Carlos was reorganized into a National University.

   • Arts and Culture: Supported through the establishment of the National Library and the Conservatorio Nacional de Música. The government financed opera companies and promoted art and sculpture.

   • National Symbols: Miguel García Granados designed the current flag (August 17, 1871) and shield (November 18, 1871), featuring the quetzal from Los Altos' symbols. José María Reina Barrios premiered the current National Anthem in 1897, which subtly incorporates pre-Columbian history and Central American identity.

   • Urban and Technological Development: Extensive infrastructure projects including roads, bridges (e.g., Puente Barranquilla, Puente de la Penitenciaría), railroads, ports, telegraph lines, and telephones, often with foreign investment. Hospitals (e.g., Hospital General San Juan de Dios) and the General Cemetery were also established by the state.

4. Indigenous Policies:

   • Assimilation: Liberals sought to homogenize society by integrating indigenous people as "citizens," promoting the use of Spanish, Western clothing, and mestizaje as a path to "civilization" and ending their isolation. This was seen as a way to transition from "subjects of the king" to active participants in the modern nation.

The Idea of Central American Union: The concept of "Centroamérica" became deeply ingrained in the region's collective consciousness. The formation of the Federal Republic was seen by liberals as the true emancipation from colonial and conservative influences. While conservative governments generally opposed reunification, the ideal of union remained a significant political discourse, especially among liberals who created national symbols and histories reflecting a broader Central American identity. Justo Rufino Barrios, a radical liberal, actively pursued reunification by force, leading to his death in 1885.

The Liberal Reform period concluded with the 1944 Revolution, which ended Jorge Ubico's long dictatorship.