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PHILOSOPHY

● Philosophy is the systematic and critical study of fundamental questions about

existence, knowledge, truth, values, reason, mind, and human life.

● Etymology:

○ philo (φιλο) = love; sophia (σοφία) = wisdom

○ “love for wisdom”

● Pythagoras: Humans must not claim to be wise [sophos (σοφός)] but rather lovers of

wisdom [philosophos (φιλόσοφος)]

○ Wisdom is to be sought continuously, not fully possessed

● Main Objectives:

1. to search for truth;

2. to make ideas clearer; and

3. to improve the way people think

● SELF is defined in Philosophy as:

○ What makes a person a unique subject of experience, separate and different from

others.

○ The self is commonly seen as a unified being linked to consciousness (awareness

of experiences), self-awareness (knowing one exists), and agency (the ability to

make rational and intentional choices).

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS

THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCRATES (496-399 B.C.)

● Believed the true self is the soul, not the body.

● The body is temporary; the soul is immortal.

● Famous teachings:

○ “Know thyself.” (understand character, strengths, and weaknesses, including

ignorance)

○ “The unexamined life is not worth living.” (reflect and question life)

● Self-knowledge leads to moral improvement.

● Wisdom begins by recognizing one’s ignorance.

● Core Idea: The true self is not the body, but the soul.

● Example: A student refuses to cheat during an exam even though everyone else is doing it.

He says, “I would rather fail honestly than damage my integrity.”

○ The soul (moral character) is more important than external success. The student

values inner virtue over external results.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF PLATO (428-348 B.C.)

● The self is an immortal soul temporarily living in a body.

● The soul has three parts: (rational : immortal ; spirited & appetitive : perishable)

○ Rational – seeks truth (immortal)

○ Spirited – courage, emotions

○ Appetitive – desires and pleasures

● The rational part should govern the others.

● Core Idea: The self is the immortal soul living in a mortal body.

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● Example: Maria is preparing for the board exam. She feels tempted to go to a party the

night before (desire for pleasure). She also feels anxious and wants to prove herself to her

family (emotional drive). After thinking carefully about her long-term goal, she chooses

to stay home and study (rationality).

○ Maria’s rational soul ruled over the appetitive and spirited parts, creating a

harmonious and just self.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

● The self is a unified being of body and soul.

● Rejected Plato’s strict separation.

● Emphasized:

○ Reason as the highest human function.

○ Desire and senses domination leads to disorder in life.

○ Virtue as habitual good action.

○ The Golden Mean (moderation between extremes).

○ Happiness (eudaimonia) comes from rational and virtuous living.

● Core Idea: The self is made up of both body and soul (unified).

● Example: Someone avoids being overly aggressive in an argument but also avoids being

too passive. They calmly explain their side.

○ Reflects Aristotle’s Golden Mean — choosing moderation between extremes to

achieve virtue and balance.

MEDIEVAL CATHOLIC PHILOSOPHERS

THE PERSPECTIVE OF ST. AUGUSTINE (354-430 A.D.)

● Combined Greek philosophy with Christianity.

● Self is made up of the body and soul created by God.

● True happiness is found only in God.

● Divine Revelation: God is not just an abstract idea but a personal being.

● Virtue means loving God properly and loving others accordingly.

● Warned about hedonism because it’s temporary.

● Famous idea:

○ “You have made our hearts for You, O God, and they will find rest only in You.”

● Core Idea: The self finds fulfillment only through relationship with God.

● Example: A wealthy celebrity feels empty despite fame and money and turns to

spirituality for fulfillment.

○ Augustine believed material success cannot satisfy the soul; only relationship with

God brings true peace.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF ST. THOMAS AQUINAS (1225-1274)

● Integrated Aristotle’s philosophy with Christian theology.

● Reason and Divine Revelation do not contradict.

○ Both came from God, who is the Truth.

● Reason is supreme in a human person and allows us to know truth with certainty

● Earthly happiness = development of reason and virtue.

● Perfect and complete happiness and fulfillment comes from union with God.

● Core Idea: The rational soul seeks ultimate fulfillment in God.

● Example: A student studies scientific explanations of the universe but still believes it

reflects divine design.

○ Aquinas argued that reason and revelation do not contradict. Both can guide

understanding of the self and reality.

MODERN PHILOSOPHERS

THE PERSPECTIVE OF RENE DESCARTES (1596–1650)

● Proposed dualism: mind and body are distinct.

○ Immaterial Mind and a Material Body

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■ The mind is the seat of consciousness and rational thought, while the body,

including the senses, is unreliable and should not be fully trusted.

● Famous statement:

○ “I think, therefore I am.” (Cogito, ergo sum)

● The mind (thinking substance) is more certain than the body.

● Virtuous life = understand passions and work to control them.

○ Reason > Desire

● Core Idea: Self = thinking, conscious mind.

● Example: A man doubts everything he sees in virtual reality but remains certain that he

exists because he is thinking.

○ Reflects Descartes’ principle that thinking proves existence.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF JOHN LOCKE (1632–1704)

● The mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate).

● Knowledge comes from experience.

● Identity shaped by memory and learning.

● Believed in natural rights: Life, Liberty, Health, & Property

● Negative early experiences do not determine a person’s entire life.

○ Humans have the freedom to shape their own character through choices and

learning.

● Humans are made by God and have a purpose.

● Core Idea: The self develops through experience.

● Example: A child raised in a nurturing environment becomes confident and

compassionate.

○ Locke’s idea that the self develops from environmental experiences.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF IMMANUEL KANT (1724–1804)

● Self has: Inner Rational Self and Outer Physical Self

○ Inner Rational Self: psychological states and rational intellect

○ Outer Physical Self: body, senses, and interaction with the physical world

● Developed the Categorical Imperative:

○ Act only according to rules you want everyone to follow. (which is the Golden Rule)

■ Thinking logically and universally

● Morality comes from reason, not emotion or religion alone.

○ Reason > Religion

● Core Idea: The rational self determines moral action.

● Example: A student considers lying to avoid punishment but asks, “What if everyone lied

whenever they were in trouble?”

○ Applies Kant’s Categorical Imperative: morality comes from universal principles

guided by reason.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHERS

THE PERSPECTIVE OF MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY (1908-1961)

● Self as a union of mind and body.

● Rejected mind-body separation.

○ It is impossible to say where one ends and the other begins.

● Self and experiences are embodied.

● Introduced: “being-in-the-world”

● Experience is always through the body.

● Core Idea: Mind and body are inseparable.

● Example: Fear causes a person’s heart to race before they consciously process danger.

○ This shows the inseparability of bodily experience and consciousness.

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THE PERSPECTIVE OF GILBERT RYLE (1900–1976)

● Unity of mind and body

○ The mind is not a separate entity controlling the body.

○ The mind is a set of capacities and abilities of the body.

○ The mind is the organizing principle of the body

● Rejected Cartesian dualism; Agreed with Merleau-Ponty.

● The mind is not a separate entity.

● Three Types of Knowledge:

○ Knowing how – practical or technical abilities

○ Knowing that – factual knowledge or propositions

○ Knowing what – familiarity with people, objects, or situations

● True knowledge involves being able to apply what we know to solve problems, both

practical and theoretical.

● Core Idea: Mental life consists of abilities and behaviors.

● Example: A medical student knows that CPR requires chest compressions at a specific

rhythm (that), knows what a cardiac arrest situation looks like (what), and confidently

knows how to perform CPR correctly during an emergency (how).

○ Reflects Ryle’s distinction between factual knowledge (knowing that), familiarity or

recognition (knowing what), and practical skill (knowing how).

THE PERSPECTIVE OF PAUL CHURCHLAND (1942)

● Advocated eliminative materialism.

○ Mental concepts are unnecessary because neuroscience explains behavior

through brain activity.

○ Opposes the study of Psychology.

● Materialist Perspective: Only matter exists.

● The mind cannot be experienced, therefore does not truly exist.

● Mental states are brain processes.

● Behavior explained by neuroscience.

○ Human behavior explained using “neuro-conscience”

● Core Idea: The self is a product of brain activity.

● Example: A doctor explains depression as a chemical imbalance treatable by medication.

○ This aligns with eliminative materialism: behavior and emotion are brain-based

phenomena.

THE SELF FROM A PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

PSYCHOLOGY

● Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. It focuses on

how people think, feel, act, and relate to others.

○ Study of perception, learning, memory, emotion, personality, intelligence, and

mental health.

● Etymology:

○ psyche (ψυχή) = soul; logos (λόγος) = study

○ “study of the soul”

● Main Objectives:

1. Describe Behavior

● Identify and observe what is happening.

2. Explain Behavior

● Determine the causes of behavior.

3. Predict Behavior

● Anticipate future behavior based on patterns.

4. Control or Influence Behavior

● Apply psychological principles to improve well-being.

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● SELF is defined in Psychology as:

○ The center of human experience; how a person thinks, feels, behaves, and

understands who they are.

○ The self is shaped by biological factors, mental processes, personal experiences,

and social interactions.

○ The self is not fixed.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF SIGMUND FREUD (1856–1939)

● The self is largely shaped by the unconscious.

● Three structures of personality:

○ Id – instinctual drives (pleasure principle)

■ Seeks immediate gratification; Irrational and impulsive

○ Ego – rational mediator (reality principle; balance)

■ Makes rational decisions; Balances id and superego

○ Superego – moral conscience (rule principle)

■ Represents parental and societal values; Produces guilt and pride

● Inner conflict between these creates anxiety.

○ Personality = result of the inner struggles between id, ego, and superego

● Childhood experiences strongly shape adult personality.

○ Unresolved conflicts in childhood is suppressed in the unconscious

● Core Idea: The self is shaped by the unconscious under the three parts of the psyche.

● Example: A student wants to skip class to play games (id), feels guilty thinking about

parental expectations (superego), and decides to attend class but play later (ego).

○ This demonstrates the balancing function of the ego between instinct and morality.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF WILLIAM JAMES (1842–1910)

● Two aspects of the self:

1. The “I”

■ It is the self that thinks and experiences.

■ The part that is aware, reflects, and makes choices.

■ The active subject

2. The “Me”

■ The self as object

■ The known and observable aspect of identity

■ Divided into:

● Material self - body, possessions

● Social self - roles, relationships

● Spiritual self - values, inner beliefs

● The self is not a single, fixed entity but a collection of experiences, identities, and roles.

● The self is dynamic and flexible, shaped by both inner awareness and social interaction.

● Core Idea: The self is dynamic and shaped by experience.

THE SELF FROM A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

SOCIOLOGY

● Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relationships, and social behavior.

● How human actions are shaped by social relationships, social groups, institutions, and

culture.

● Etymology:

○ socius (σόσιους) = society; logos (λόγος) = study

○ “study of the society”

● Main Objectives:

1. Understand Human Behavior

● Explain how behavior changes in social contexts.

2. Analyze Social Relationships

● Examine how family, peers, and institutions shape identity.

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3. Explain Social Patterns and Trends

● Study recurring trends like inequality, conformity, or deviance.

4. Promote Social Awareness

● Connect personal problems to social forces.

5. Improve Society

● Provide knowledge for reform and policy-making.

● SELF is defined in Sociology as:

○ The self is a product of social interaction and social experience.

○ The self is socially constructed, meaning that who we are is largely shaped by our

relationships, cultural expectations, and social experiences rather than by

biological factors alone.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF GEORGE HERBERT MEAD (1863–1931)

● The self develops through social interaction and communication.

● The self arises only when individuals learn to see themselves from the perspective of

others.

● The self is not present at birth — it emerges gradually.

● The Two Parts of the Self:

○ The “I”

■ Spontaneous, Creative, Impulsive

■ The unpredictable part

○ The “Me”

■ Socialized Self, Internalized Norms, Social Expectations

■ Reflective and controlled

● The Generalized Other

○ The internalized attitudes, values, and rules of the wider society.

○ The collective expectations of the community.

○ Gradually forms part of “Me.”

○ It allows individuals to:

■ Predict how others will react

■ Regulate their own behavior

● Language and communication are essential to the development of the self.

● Core Idea: The self emerges through communication and role-taking.

● Example: A person adjusts behavior depending on workplace culture.

○ This demonstrates interaction between the “I” and the socially conditioned “Me.”

THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHARLES COOLEY (1864–1929)

● Proposed the Looking-Glass Self:

1. Imagine how others see you.

2. Imagine how they judge you.

3. Develop feelings about yourself.

● Looking-Glass Self: We develop our identity based on how we imagine others perceive

and judge us, functioning as a social mirror

● The self develops through reflected social interaction.

● Self-image depends on perceived social feedback.

○ This is not based on what others actually tell what they think you are, but rather it’s

your perception of what they think you are.

● Core Idea: Self is what you think what others think about you.

● Example: A student believes classmates think she is smart, so she becomes more

confident.

○ Self-image based on perceived judgments of others.

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | 6 SUMMARY OF ALL PHILOSOPHERS, PSYCHOLOGISTS & SOCIOLOGISTS

PHILOSOPHERS

● Socrates - The self is the soul, and true knowledge comes from self-examination.

○ “Know thyself”

● Plato - The self is the immortal soul in a mortal body.

○ Three Parts: rational (reason), spirited (emotion), & appetitive (desires)

● Aristotle - The self is a unified being of body and soul.

○ Golden Mean: Balance of two extremes

● St. Augustine - The self is the body and soul created by God.

○ Virtue is the order of love.

● St. Thomas Aquinas - The self is rational and moral.

○ Ultimate happiness is union with God; Reason and Divine Revelation work together.

● René Descartes - The self is the thinking mind.

○ Dualism; “I think, therefore I am.” (Cogito, ergo sum)

● John Locke - The self is shaped by experience.

○ The mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate).

● Immanuel Kant - The self has inner self (reason) and outer self (body).

○ Categorical Imperative: Golden Rule (in simple words)

● Maurice Merleau-Ponty - The self is an embodied being.

○ Mind and body are inseparable in experience.

● Gilbert Ryle - The self is expressed in abilities and actions (mind).

○ Knowledge is “knowing how,” “knowing that,” and “knowing what.”

● Paul Churchland - The self is brain-based.

○ Eliminative Materialism; Mental states are reducible to neural activity.

Legend: Red = Ancient; Yellow = Medieval Catholic; Green = Modern; Blue = Contemporary

PSYCHOLOGISTS

● Sigmund Freud - The self is shaped by unconscious forces.

○ Id (pleasure), Ego (reality, balance), and Superego (morality).

● William James - The self consists of the “I” (subjective experiencer) and the “Me” (known

self)

○ The “Me”: Material Self, Social Self, and Spiritual Self

SOCIOLOGISTS

● George Herbert Mead - The self develops through social interaction.

○ Role-taking; The “I” is spontaneous, the “Me” is socialized, guided by the

Generalized Other.

● Herbert Cooley - The self is based on perceived judgments of others.

○ Looking-Glass Self; self-image