Lecture Notes on Religious Transformations Lecture

Jonathan Edwards and the First Great Awakening

Jonathan Edwards was a prominent figure during the First Great Awakening, known for his revival at his church in North Hampton, Massachusetts, around 1734-1735, which is seen as a precursor to the Awakening. Beyond being an effective evangelical preacher, Edwards was a significant theologian, producing important treatises. His sermon, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," is well-known, but it doesn't fully represent his extensive theological work. Like other evangelical preachers of the time, he used the fear of divine punishment to encourage repentance, but reducing his message to simply "hellfire preaching" is a distortion. One notable publication that includes extracts of Edwards' work is Distinguishing Marks of the Work of the Spirit, which demonstrates the transatlantic nature of the Great Awakening. Edwards corresponded with John Wesley, and his work on affections significantly influenced Wesley's writings.

Gilbert Tennant and the Expansion of the Great Awakening

Gilbert Tennant, a Presbyterian leader in the Middle Colonies, played a crucial role in continuing the revival of the First Great Awakening. Following George Whitfield's departure, Tennant was appointed to take over the revival in New England and maintained it until about 1742.

Rise of Evangelical Colleges

The First Great Awakening spurred the establishment of colleges to educate ministers and promote evangelical Christian messages. The College of New Jersey, which later became Princeton University, was founded in 1746 by supporters of the revival. Fundraising efforts to build the college began in 1764.

Opposition to the Great Awakening

Charles Chauncey, a minister in Boston, was a leading voice against the Great Awakening. He criticized Whitfield's preaching and favored a more traditional, formal religious approach. By 1742, the debate over the Great Awakening had divided New England clergy and colonists into "new lights"/"new sides" (supporters) and "old lights"/"old sides" (opponents).

Impact on Baptists and Methodists

Despite their presence in the American colonies before, the Great Awakening significantly propelled Baptists into becoming a powerful force for proselytization. Alongside Methodists, they became the primary Protestant denominations in the Southern and Western United States by the early 19th century. Baptists differed from other Protestant groups by practicing baptism by immersion only for those who had undergone a conversion experience, excluding infants. The Methodist movement also grew, with Francis Asbury being a key figure. Asbury ordained 4,000 ministers, preached 16,000 sermons, and traveled 270,000 miles on horseback. The first Methodist meeting in the American Colonies occurred in New York City in 1766, with five people. By 1846, the church had grown to 4,000,000 members.

Methodist Growth

The rapid growth of the Methodist Church in the post-Revolutionary period is attributed to its organizational structure, which allowed for the effective mobilization of resources, including a general conference, annual conferences, districts, and circuits.

Immanuel Kant and the Enlightenment

The 19th century saw shifts in theology and efforts to integrate Enlightenment ideas with Christian faith. Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, believed that while knowledge originates from sensory experiences, human reason uses universal categories to make sense of the sensory world. Kant divided human life into the sensory/phenomenal world (subject to empirical examination) and the moral/numinal world (where a person is a moral agent). According to Kant, religion and science do not conflict as long as each remains in its respective sphere. Kant argued that the existence of God could not be proven or disproven by reason. He emphasized human social life and ethics, advocating for universal moral principles based on rational reflection, which stems from deontology. Kant's concept of morality emphasizes duty. The essence of religion lies in the moral law within each person, and organized religion exists to ensure individuals comply with that moral law. Kant's famous dictum is to "act as if your actions were to become a universal law."

Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin's theory brought significant changes to science. As a participant on the HMS Beagle expedition, Darwin's discoveries and specimens influenced his theories on evolution. His work, On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, provided evidence for evolution. Darwin's religious views evolved over time. Initially studying to become a member of the clergy, he later questioned the Bible's infallibility and the legitimacy of all religions. The death of his 10-year-old daughter in 1851 influenced his views on religion.

Modernization of Christian Thought

The liberal movement in New England, characterized by its rejection of human depravity and election to grace, remained part of the church until about 1819. Tensions increased, leading to a turning point sparked by William Ellery Channing's sermon, "Unitarian Christianity." This sermon highlighted Unitarianism's rejection of the Trinity and its emphasis on human goodness and reason in religious matters. In 1820, Channing organized a conference of Unitarian ministers, which led to the formation of the American Unitarian Association in 1825. Channing was also involved in politics and humanitarian causes, such as abolition of slavery and improving conditions for the poor.

Horace Bushnell and Theological Liberalism

Horace Bushnell, a Congregational minister and theologian, sought to free Protestant theology from Puritan scholasticism and establish religious liberalism. In his book God in Christ (1848), he discussed language as symbols agreed upon by social groups. Bushnell insisted that the historical context of words is essential for understanding, and changing situations require new definitions. This idea was seen as a threat to traditional doctrine by conservative clergymen, and Bushnell was charged with heresy.

John McLeod Campbell and Universal Atonement

John McLeod Campbell preached universal atonement, viewing it in light of incarnation. He stated that in the atonement, the birth, person, work, and death of Jesus Christ cannot be separated. According to Campbell, Jesus fulfills the law to love God and neighbors selflessly, and Christ's whole life is atonement.

Nathaniel Taylor and New Haven Theology

Nathaniel Taylor developed the New Haven Theology or Taylorism, which opposed historical Calvinism and aligned with the Second Great Awakening's religious revivalism. Taylor founded the theological department at Yale, which later became Yale Divinity School. His theology included:

  • Original Sin: Adam's sin was not imputed to others, nor is depravity defined by a physical flaw. Sin is an act of free choice.

  • God's Sovereignty: God does not predetermine destiny through election but created a moral universe for judgment.

  • Atonement: Christ's death urges sinners to turn from sin and be converted.

Charles Hodge at Princeton Divinity School opposed Taylor's teachings, leading to a division within Presbyterianism between the "old school" (Hodge) and the "new school" (Taylor). Hodge and Princeton Divinity School promoted the Bible as the infallible word of God.

Friedrich Schleiermacher and the Understanding of Religion

Schleiermacher offered a new understanding of religion amid Enlightenment criticism. He argued that religion is not about theological systems or doctrines but rather a feeling for the infinite and dependence on God. Schleiermacher's theology encouraged a new generation of biblical scholars to approach ancient texts without the need to defend Christian or Jewish orthodoxy.

Biblical Criticism

Scholars began to study history scientifically, recognizing that morality is relative to time and culture. Biblical scholars now approached the Bible as a human product, using the historical-critical method. Julius Wellhausen proposed that the Pentateuch was not written by a single scholar but is a complex union of four ancient sources (JEDP). This "higher criticism" became controversial, influencing interpretations of the Bible.

The Quest for the Historical Jesus

Jesus became a matter of intense concern in 19th-century biblical scholarship. Scholars determined that the Gospel of Mark is the oldest and a primary source for Matthew and Luke. They also proposed the existence of a source called "Q" that contained sayings of Jesus. David Strauss contributed to the quest for the historical Jesus. Adolf von Harnack sought to free Christianity from its bondage and recover the original teachings of Jesus. Albert Ritschl rejected metaphysics and supernaturalism, emphasizing Jesus' teachings and the idea that God's kingdom is an earthly kingdom that Jesus' disciples will create.

Transcendentalism

Transcendentalism, inspired by German philosophy, emerged in America as a way to preserve spiritual truth without the dogmatism of New England Calvinism. Ralph Waldo Emerson combined romantic sentiment with a rational belief in the immortality of the soul and the universality of a divine being.

Shifts in Eschatology

Expectations about the millennium diverged into two streams:

  • Premillennialism: Predicted the advent of the millennium after Christ's coming and a sudden divine interruption.

  • Postmillennialism: Expected the coming of Christ after the millennium, with a gradual perfecting of earthly life through human efforts.

Dispensationalism

Dispensationalism, influenced by John Nelson Darby of the Plymouth Brethren, divides history into dispensations with evolving sets of rules. Darby is credited with originating the "secret rapture theory," where Christ will remove believers without warning. Cyrus Schofield popularized dispensationalism in the United States through the Schofield Reference Bible. Dispensationalists believe in the re-establishment of the kingdom of Israel, putting them at the forefront of Christian Zionism. Darby's teachings became a mainstay in evangelical and fundamentalist pastors.

The Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening, lasting from the 1790s to the 1840s, was a revitalization of religion across the United States. It involved the conversion of many through emotionally charged revivals. Key features included:

  • Camp Meetings: Large gatherings held on the frontier with preaching, hymns, and religious fervor.

  • Revivalism at Yale: Under President Timothy Dwight, students embraced evangelical Christianity.

  • Charles Finney's Reforms: Finney introduced new methods and attitudes to revivals, emphasizing free will and public witness of conversion.

Conversion was a core aspect of 19th-century evangelicalism, being an emotional experience that altered one's sense of self.

Denominational Diversity

The Great Awakening led to denominational diversity, widened lines between classes of religion, and made evangelical Protestantism the nation's predominant religion. Splits occurred within denominations between revivalists (new lights) and traditionalists (old lights). Missionary endeavors and Christian social outreach expanded, addressing issues like slavery and prison reform. William and Catherine Booth founded the Salvation Army to promote urban social needs and the gospel.

The Benevolent Empire

The Benevolent Empire was a broad campaign of moral and institutional reform inspired by evangelical Christian ideas. Key figures included Lyman Beecher, a proponent of moral reform. The movement addressed issues such as abolition of slavery and temperance.

Slave Religion to Black Church

In the 19th century, widespread evangelicalism led to the conversion of enslaved men and women. Baptist and Methodist ministers appealed to this population with a plain message of hope and catered to African worship styles. African Americans organized their own "invisible institution" in hush arbors, mixing Christianity with African rhythms and beliefs. Spirituals with double meanings about religious salvation and freedom developed. Despite restrictions, the black church movement flourished in the North. Black churches aided new residents and played a role in anti-slavery activities. Leaders like Richard Allen and Absalom Jones founded independent black churches, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AMEC).

New Religious Movements

The Burned-Over District in Upstate New York was a hotbed for new religious movements:

  • Mormonism: Joseph Smith founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, based on a special revelation and the Book of Mormon. Brigham Young led the Mormons to Utah.

  • Shakers: Ann Lee led the Shakers, known for their celibacy, simplicity, and unique worship style.

Other utopian communities included the Fourierites, Owenites, and Oneida communities.

Millennial Fever and Adventism

William Miller predicted Christ's return in 1844, leading to the Adventist movement. When the prophecy failed, it splintered into groups, including the Seventh-Day Adventist Church led by Ellen G. Harmon.

Spiritualism

Modern spiritualism emerged with the Fox sisters in 1848, who claimed to communicate with spirits through knocks. The movement gained popularity, especially among women, and involved seances and mediums.

Christian Science

Mary Baker Eddy founded Christian Science, emphasizing spiritual healing through divine laws.

Urban Revivalism

Dwight Moody brought revivalism to urban settings through the YMCA and his mission in Chicago, which became the Illinois Street Independent Church. Influenced by premillennialism and the holiness movement, Moody trained laypeople and founded the Moody Bible Institute.

Parachurch Movements

Parachurch movements, such as the American Bible Society, the Sunday School movement, the YMCA, and the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), crossed denominational lines.

Opponents of Christianity

Karl Marx developed a theory of history and society, viewing religion as a tool used by oppressors. Marx's anti-religious sentiment framed conflicts like the Cold War.