Exam 1 - PHI 3000

1. Philosophy of Universals: Do universals exist?

Universals are properties that multiple things share, like “redness” or “beauty.” Philosophers disagree on whether these exist on their own or just in our minds.

🔹 Plato’s Two-World Theory (Strong Realism)

 • There are two realities:

 1. World of Forms(Ideal World) – A perfect, unchanging place where universal concepts (like “Redness” or “Justice”) exist.

 2. World of Particulars(Our World) – Physical objects (like red roses) imitate these perfect Forms.

 • Example: A red rose is red because it participates in the perfect idea of “Redness.”

🔹 Aristotle’s Moderate Realism

 • Universals exist, but only within things—not in a separate world.

 • Example: “Redness” is real, but it only exists inside red objects like roses and trucks, not in some abstract realm.

🔹 Nominalism (Russell leans toward this)

 • Universals don’t really exist—they are just names we use.

 • Example: “Redness” is just a word we use to group similar things, not a real thing by itself.

2. Russell’s Argument for Universals

Russell believed universals must exist because:

 1. Many things share the same property (e.g., a red rose and a red truck are both red).

 2. If “redness” was just a name, how could two objects have the same color?

 3. Universals must be independent of things, but they show up inside particular objects.

🛑 Objection (Nominalist Argument)

 • Just because we call things “red” doesn’t mean there’s a real thing called “Redness.” It’s just a mental shortcut.

🔧 Russell’s Response

 • If “redness” were just a name, we wouldn’t be able to recognize the same color in different objects. There must be something real linking them.

3. Theological Argument: Universals and God

 • If universals exist on their own(Plato’s view), do things like morality and justice exist apart from God?

 • If universals exist only inside things(Aristotle’s view), does that mean morality is based on God’s nature?

🛑 Challenge:

 • If moral truths exist outside of God, does that mean God is not in control of them?

 • If moral truths exist inside God, does that mean morality is just God’s preference?

4. Analogical vs. Non-Analogical Forms

 • Analogical Meaning– A word’s meaning changes slightly depending on context but stays similar.

 • Example: “God is good” vs. “This cake is good.” (Same word, but slightly different meaning.)

 • Non-Analogical Meaning – A word always means the exact same thing.

 • Example: “Redness” means the same thing whether in a rose or a truck.

5. Resemblance Theory: No Universals, Just Similarities

 • This theory says universals don’t exist at all.

 • Instead, we notice patterns and group things together in our minds.

 • Example: A red rose and a red truck look similar, so we mentally group them under “redness,” but “redness” itself isn’t a real thing.

🛑 Objection:

 • If universals don’t exist, how do we compare objects at all?

🔧 Response:

 • Our minds create categories without needing real universals. We just recognize similarities.

Challenge Questions

 1. Russell’s Proof Objection:

 • If “redness” exists independently, where is it when no red objects exist?

 2. Plato vs. Aristotle:

 • How would Aristotle argue that “Redness” does not exist in a separate world?

 3. Theological Challenge:

 • If moral truths exist outside of God, does that limit God’s power? If they exist in God, does that make morality arbitrary?

 4. Resemblance Theory Weakness:

 • If resemblance alone explains universals, how do we recognize completely new colors we’ve never seen before?