Historical Context of the New Testament and Old Testaments (Hour 4):

Purpose and Scope of Historical Context

• The primary goal is to examine the historical context of the individuals who authored New Testament texts.
• Understanding the historical environment provides insight into the motivations and surroundings of the authors, as well as the life of Jesus.
• The timeline spans approximately 500 to 600 years before the life of Jesus to explain the mindset and concerns of the Jewish people during that era.
• Key areas of focus include the Greco-Roman world's emergence, its core values, and the Jewish response to foreign rule.

Geographical and Global Context

• Jerusalem and Israel:
  • Jerusalem is located in the bottom right corner of modern maps of the region.
  • It served as the capital of the nation of Israel and subsequently the Southern Kingdom of Judah.
  • Jerusalem is regarded as the seat of the authors of the Hebrew Bible.
  • The nation of Israel is geographically small, characterized as a "tiny sliver," yet globally influential through its texts.
• Surrounding Continents and Bodies of Water:
  • The Mediterranean Sea is the central body of water, surrounded by Europe (North), Africa (South), and Asia (East).
  • The Sinai Peninsula is the triangular sliver of land between Israel and Egypt; it is the location of Mount Sinai, a foundational site in Hebrew Bible narratives.
  • Regional entities include Turkey, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon, collectively known as the ancient Near East or Middle East.

The Babylonian Conquest and Exile

• Kingdom Split: The nation of Israel initially experienced internal conflict among tribes, leading to a split into the Northern Kingdom (Israel) and the Southern Kingdom (Judah).
• Assyrian Conquest: The Northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Assyrians long before the fall of Judah.
• Babylonian Conquest (In May, Before the Common Era):
  • The Babylonian Empire conquered Judah, ending its existence as an autonomous, self-ruling nation.
  • This was religiously traumatic, as the people believed God had promised them this land; they interpreted the loss as a consequence of failing to remain faithful to their covenant.
• Foreign Policy of Exile:
  • Babylonian policy involved rounding up the "best of the best"—the elite, wealthy, skilled, and educated.
  • These individuals were forcibly exiled from Judah to areas near Babylon to contribute to Babylonian culture.
  • A significant portion of the Hebrew Bible was authored by these exiles.

The Persian Period and the Policy of Return

• Persian Conquest (In May, Approximately 50 years later): Cyrus of Persia conquered the Babylonian Empire, gaining control over the Jerusalem region.
• Persian Foreign Policy:
  • Unlike the Babylonians, Cyrus encouraged subjects to return to their ancestral lands and thrive.
  • Long-term Goal: The Persians aimed to conquer Egypt. By ensuring a thriving population in the region between Persia and Egypt, they secured a reliable supply of resources (crops, herds, built cities) for their marching armies.
• Restoration: Many Jews returned to Jerusalem, rebuilt the city, and resumed local life. Persian rule lasted approximately 200 years.

Alexander the Great and Hellenism

• Conquest (In March, 200 years after Cyrus): Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire. By his death at age 33, he had established the largest empire in world history to that point.
• Policy of Hellenism:
  • Alexander sought to unify and stabilize his empire by encouraging the adoption of Hellenism (Greek culture, customs, language, and philosophy).
  • Jewish subjects resisted this cultural assimilation, leading to internal tension and struggle.
• Internal Jewish Conflict:
  • Assimilationist Jews: Believed they could adopt Greek community services and architecture while remaining Jewish, provided it did not violate the covenant.
  • Resistance/Traditionalist Jews: Feared a "slippery slope" where adopting Greek customs would lead to violating the covenant, specifically regarding the worship of the Greek pantheon (e.g., Zeus) instead of the specific god Yahweh.

The Reign of Antiochus Epiphanes and the Hasidim

• Accession (In January): King Antiochus IV, also known as Antiochus Epiphanes, came to power over the portion of the Greek empire containing Jerusalem.
• God Complex:
  • Antiochus asserted he was part divine (son of Zeus and a human mother).
  • He demanded worship from his subjects, which directly violated the first commandment of the Jewish faith (worshiping no other god but Yahweh).
• The Hasidim:
  • The name means "Holy Ones" in Hebrew.
  • They resisted Hellenism to the point of death. Stories in the Apocrypha detail their torture and execution by Greek soldiers for refusing to eat pork or worship the king.
• Theological Shift (Afterlife):
  • Prior to this persecution, Jewish thought held no view of a life after death; people went to $Shi'ol$ (Sheol), simply a dark place of the dead.
  • Because the faithful were being tortured rather than "blessed in this life" (traditional Mosaic theology), Jews evolved a new belief: they would receive their rewards in a life after death.
  • This led to a divide in the New Testament period: the Pharisees (theological descendants of the Hasidim) accepted the afterlife, while the Sadducees (temple elite) rejected it as it was not in the Torah.

The Essenes and the Qumran Community

• Separatism: A group of Jews, the Essenes, left Jerusalem to live in the desert near the Dead Sea to escape persecution and foreign influence.
• Apocalyptic View: They lived as a community "waiting for the end," believing God would soon intervene to establish the Kingdom of God on Earth.
• Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls:
  • The Essenes lived in the community of Qumran, where they continually copied sacred texts.
  • When the Roman threat loomed, they hid their scrolls in pottery vases within cliffs and caves.
  • These scrolls were rediscovered in 1947, providing ancient copies of the Hebrew Bible and documentation of Essene life.
• John the Baptist: Speculation exists that John the Baptist might have been an Essene due to his wilderness lifestyle (eating locusts, wearing camel hair) and his apocalyptic message: "Repent for the end is near."

The Roman Takeover and Greco-Roman Period

• Pompey's Conquest (63 BCE): Roman General Pompey took over the Greek empire, transferring power to Rome.
• Language: While the elite used Latin for official business, the common people continued to use Greek, the language of the land established by the Greeks.
• Emperor Augustus:
  • The title "Caesar" means Emperor.
  • Augustus is mentioned in the Gospel of Luke regarding a decree that the world should be taxed, leading Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem.
• Herod the Great:
  • The local client king ruling over Jerusalem and surrounding areas under Roman authority.
  • In the Gospel of Matthew, he is known for the "Massacre of the Innocents"—ordering the death of Jewish baby boys after the Wise Men (Magi) inquired about a new king.
  • He rebuilt and refurbished Solomon's Temple to ingratiate himself with the Jewish population.

The Jewish-Roman Wars and the Fall of Jerusalem

• Pontius Pilate: A Roman governor in Jerusalem who ultimately condemned Jesus to death by crucifixion on charges of treason.
• Zealot Revolt (66 CE): The Zealots, a group of Jews who despised foreign rule, revolted, killed the Romans in Jerusalem, and seized the city.
• Siege of Jerusalem: The Roman army surrounded the city, cutting off food and water for years.
• Destruction (70 CE): Romans broke into Jerusalem, killed the remaining inhabitants, and completely destroyed Herod's Temple. This is a foundational event for understanding New Testament texts.
• The Stand at Masada:
  • Zealots who escaped Jerusalem fled to Masada, a mountaintop resort built by Herod the Great.
  • The Romans besieged Masada, spending years building a massive dirt ramp (indicated today by archaeological ruins) to bring battering rams to the summit.
  • Upon the Roman breach, they found that the Zealots had committed mass suicide (choosing one person via a straw draw to kill the others and then themselves) to avoid capture.
• Bar Kokhba War (60 years after 70 CE): Led by Bar Kokhba ("Son of the Star"), this was another failed Jewish revolt against Rome in an attempt to retake Jerusalem.