U.S. History, 1808-1900 (2025) - 2nd Semester Review Notes

Main Time Periods

  • Understand the main historical periods covered, their connections, and flow.
    • Key events.
    • Significant individuals and presidential elections.
    • Overarching themes.

Democratic-Republicans

  • Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans: Focus on tariffs as a point of contention.

War of 1812

  • "Second War of Independence."
    • President Madison's role.
    • Causes: Impressment of sailors and other grievances.
    • Colonel (later President) Andrew Jackson's significance.
    • Battle of New Orleans: Key victory.
    • Significance: Reaffirmed American sovereignty.
    • Federalist opposition to the war.

Era of Good Feelings

  • President Monroe's administration.
  • Monroe Doctrine: Asserted American dominance in the Western Hemisphere.
  • End of the Federalist Party.

Election of 1824

  • Controversial election, labeled the "corrupt bargain."
  • John Quincy Adams' presidency.

Jacksonian Era

  • Andrew Jackson: "King Andrew," known for his strong personal characteristics.
    • Differing interpretations of Jackson's leadership (Olasky & McKenzie).
  • Cherokee Removal: The forced removal of the Cherokee Nation.
    • Trail of Tears: The devastating journey of the Cherokee people.
    • Supreme Court's involvement and rulings.

Manifest Destiny

  • Belief in American expansion across the continent.
  • Oregon Territory: Acquisition and settlement.
  • The Alamo: Symbol of Texan independence.
  • Republic of Texas: Independent nation before annexation.
  • Oregon Trail: Major migration route.
  • Erie Canal: Facilitated trade and westward expansion.

War with Mexico (1846-1848)

  • Causes and purpose of the war.
  • Opposition to the war (Emerson, etc.).
  • Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Ended the war and ceded territory to the U.S.
  • "Mr. Polk's War": Controversy surrounding President Polk's role, Santa Anna.
  • "Mexico is like arsenic…" prophetic warning about the long-term consequences of territorial expansion.

Immigration

  • German and Irish immigration: Significant demographic shift.

Sectionalism: A House Dividing

  • Missouri Compromise: Addressed the issue of slavery in new territories (why necessary).
  • California Gold Rush: Impact on population and statehood.
  • Compromise of 1850: Series of laws addressing slavery (why necessary?).
    • Daniel Webster's role & Ichabod.
  • Fugitive Slave Law: Controversial law requiring the return of escaped slaves.
  • Uncle Tom's Cabin (Harriet Beecher Stowe): Powerful anti-slavery novel.
  • Underground Railroad: Network aiding escaped slaves, Harriet Tubman.
  • Stephen Douglas: The railroad and popular sovereignty.
  • Republican Party: Emergence as an anti-slavery party.
  • "Bleeding Kansas": Violence over the issue of slavery (ties to Popular Sovereignty).
  • Brooks-Sumner Affair: Violent clash in Congress.
  • Dred Scott Decision: Supreme Court ruling denying citizenship to slaves.
  • Abraham Lincoln: Rise to prominence.
  • John Brown's Raid on Harper's Ferry: Impact on sectional tensions.
  • Election of 1860: Lincoln's victory triggered secession.
  • First Inaugural Address: Lincoln's attempt to preserve the Union.

SECESSION

  • 1861: Southern states seceded from the Union.
  • Fort Sumter: First battle of the Civil War.

Ideologies

  • Abolitionist: Advocated for the end of slavery.
  • Free-Soiler: Opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories.
  • Popular Sovereignty: Allowing residents of a territory to decide on slavery.
  • "Fire Eaters": Pro-slavery extremists.

Slavery

  • Cotton: Economic dependence on cotton production.
  • "Peculiar Institution": Euphemism for slavery.
  • Mulattoes: People of mixed African and European descent.
  • Role of the North in the slave economy.
  • Eli Whitney: Cotton Gin Inventor.

War Between the States (Civil War)

  • State's Rights vs. Slavery: Central causes of the war.
  • Advantages and disadvantages for each side.
  • Significance of border states: Their allegiance was crucial.
  • Northern Technological Innovations: Played a key role in the war.
  • Home Front: Impact of the war on civilian life.
  • Robert E. Lee: Confederate general.
  • Grant: Union general.
  • Role of foreign countries: Diplomatic efforts.
  • Copperheads: Anti-war Democrats in the North.

Key Events

  • Gettysburg: Turning point of the war.
  • Border States: Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware.
  • Antietam: Led to the Emancipation Proclamation.
  • Emancipation Proclamation: Declared slaves free in Confederate territories.
  • Election of 1864: Lincoln's reelection.
  • Atlanta: Sherman's capture of Atlanta boosted Union morale.
  • African-Americans in the war: Their contributions to the Union army.
  • Sherman's Total War: Strategy of destroying civilian resources.
  • Controversy surrounding Sherman's tactics.
  • Appomattox Court House: Confederate surrender in 1865 (tone).
  • John Wilkes Booth: Assassinated Lincoln.
  • Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address: Call for reconciliation.
  • Reasons North Won: Superior resources, industry, and leadership.

Significance of the Civil War

  • Ends slavery.
  • Preserves the Union.
  • Legacy: Transformed American society.
  • Is vs. Are: Debate over national identity.
  • State vs. Federal: Shift in power towards the federal government.
  • Modern America emerges.
  • Lincoln-1st Inaugural vs. 2nd: Shift from preservation to reconciliation.

Reconstruction

  • Main views on Reconstruction: Differing goals and approaches.
  • Andrew Johnson: President after Lincoln's assassination.
  • Ten Percent Plan: Johnson's lenient plan for Reconstruction.
  • Radical Republicans: Advocated for greater protection of African-American rights.
  • Significance of Lincoln's death: Changed the course of Reconstruction.
  • Impeachment of Johnson: Attempt to remove him from office.
  • New Amendments (13th, 14th, 15th):
    • 13th: Abolished slavery.
    • 14th: Guaranteed citizenship and equal protection.
    • 15th: Granted voting rights regardless of race.
  • Carpetbaggers: Northerners who moved to the South during Reconstruction.
  • Freedmen: Newly freed African-Americans.
  • Disenfranchisement: Efforts to prevent African-Americans from voting.
  • Ku Klux Klan (KKK): White supremacist group.
  • Lynchings: Extrajudicial killings of African-Americans.
  • Sharecropping: System of agriculture that trapped many African-Americans in debt.
  • Jim Crow/Black Codes: Laws enforcing segregation and discrimination.
  • Grant Presidency: Scandals and corruption.
  • "Waving the Bloody Shirt": Using Civil War rhetoric for political gain.
  • Hayes: Election of 1876: Disputed election led to the end of Reconstruction.
  • End of Reconstruction: Withdrawal of federal troops from the South.
  • Main results/legacy:
    • Solid South: Democratic control of the South.
    • Segregation: Legal separation of races.
    • Black Codes: Discriminatory laws.

The Gilded Age

  • Term & Twain: Mark Twain coined the term to satirize the era's superficial wealth.
  • Cause/factors: Industrialization, immigration, and laissez-faire economics.
  • Wealth Capitalist: Rise of industrialists and their immense wealth.
  • Carnegie & Hunt: Examples of wealthy industrialists.
  • Biblical view of wealth.
  • Cleveland (lone democrat): Served two non-consecutive terms.
  • Diminished roles of Presidents: Weak executive leadership.
  • Spoils system: Patronage and political appointments.
  • Immigration ("New") & Ellis Island: Wave of immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.
  • Ellis Island: Entry point for immigrants (a dream or a nightmare?).
  • Kansas wheat, Land of Hope?
  • William Jennings Bryan & "Cross of Gold" Speech: Denounced the gold standard.
  • Wizard of Oz: Political allegory of the Populist movement.
  • Election of 1896: McKinley's victory over Bryan.

The West & Expansion

  • Significance of transcontinental railroad (economic multiplier).
  • Homestead Act: Encouraged settlement of the West.
  • Ranching & mining: Key industries in the West.
  • Turner Thesis, 1890: Significance of the frontier in shaping American identity.
  • Importance of buffalo: Central to Native American culture. Reservations: Forced relocation of Native Americans.
  • Custer's Last Stand/Little Big Horn: Native American victory.

Imperialism & Progressivism

  • Spanish-American War:
    • Causes: Cuban independence, yellow journalism, etc.
    • New Territory: Acquisition of territories like the Philippines and Puerto Rico.
    • Imperialism: Expansion of American power and influence.
    • Theodore Roosevelt, Imperialism.

Aftermath

  • Progressive Era worksheet & Progressive Presidents.
  • T. Roosevelt & Square Deal: Policies aimed at fairness and social justice.
  • Trust-busting: Regulation of monopolies.
  • Conservation: Protecting natural resources.

Issues

  • Causes of Civil War: Slavery and state's rights.
  • Reconstruction Legacy.
  • Civil War/Reconstruction Amendments: 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments.
  • Imperialism & Progressivism.

Famous Phrases

  • With malice toward none…
  • We will not be crucified on a cross of gold.
  • Four score and seven years ago…
  • Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses…