Canada's Major Landform Connections and Geography Review

Canada's Major Landform Regions

Canada possesses seven distinct landform regions, each providing specific resources and economic opportunities based on their geologic history. The Canadian Shield, covering Ontario, Quebec, and parts of Nunavut and Manitoba, is characterized by rocky outcrops, many rivers, lakes, and swamps, with thin soil and forests in the southern portions. It is mostly composed of Igneous and metamorphic rock and is considered a storehouse of minerals, specifically lead, gold, copper, zinc, and nickel. Best uses include forestry for pulp and paper or lumber and recreation/tourism such as camping, fishing, and hunting.

The Great Lakes St. Lawrence Lowlands in Quebec and Ontario are defined by rolling land, glacial hills, deep river valleys, and lakes. The region is founded on sedimentary rock laid down under ancient seas. The weight of glaciers scraped and gauged the land, forming features like the Niagara Escarpment. This region is known for its dense population, good transportation networks, excellent farmland for fruits and vegetables, and a main economic engine centered on manufacturing and service industries.

The Hudson Bay and Arctic Lowlands in Quebec and Nunavut consist of bedrock formed from sediments eroded from the Shield. The gently rolling landscape is covered by swampy forest and is utilized for the extraction of coal, diamonds, oil, and natural gas. In contrast, the Interior Plains across Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Southern Manitoba feature gently rolling hills and very flat regions. Composed mainly of sedimentary rock eroded from the Shield, this region has deep fertile soils ideal for grain in some areas, while other parts are too dry for crops and are perfect for ranching (cattle raising), oil production, and the exploitation of oil sands.

The Western Cordillera on the West Coast (B.C. and marks of Alberta) is very mountainous with some glaciers and three distinct mountain ranges: the Rocky, Columbia, and Coastal mountains. It features a mix of sedimentary and igneous rock, supporting forestry, mining, and recreation/tourism. The Innutian Mountains in Nunavut, Northern Canada, are steep, barren mountains made of folded sedimentary rock. It is too cold for trees, and economic activity is limited to some mining (zinc) and a small tourism industry. Finally, the Appalachian Mountains in New Brunswick, the Maritimes, and the East Coast are old, rounded mountains with jagged coastlines and many bays. This region is used for mining coal, asbestos, salt, iron, and zink (as spelled in the text), as well as recreation, tourism, and fishing.

Soil Composition and Horizons

Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, bacteria, organic material, air, and moisture. Minerals are nutrients dissolved from parent material (bedrock/rocks) needed for plant growth, including calcium, phosphorous, and Potassium. Bacteria and organic material occur as plants and animals die and are decomposed by bacteria, which allows for air pockets to form in the soil (humus). Moisture is required to dissolve nutrients so they can be taken up by plant roots. Loam is a well-balanced mix of clay, sand, and soil that is perfect for plants.

Soil develops through a profile of distinct layers known as horizons. The O Horizon (Surface) contains humus, which is decaying organic material that provides nutrients and moisture; humus is dark black in color. The A Horizon contains Topsoil, which is dark brown and rich in organic material. The B Horizon contains Subsoil, a combined mineral and organic material that is more sandy or rocky and light brown. The C Horizon consists of Parent Material, which includes minerals and rock only, representing the broken bits lying on solid Bedrock. Soil development is influenced by the parent rock texture, plants and animals that recycle organic material, climate (heat and moisture), the slope of the land (flat land builds up, steep land erodes), and time.

Detailed Vegetation and Environmental Key Terms

Permafrost is soil or rock that remains frozen all year round, typically found in the tundra or Arctic regions. The Active Layer refers to the top $5\,cm$ to $10\,cm$ of permafrost that does thaw for a period. Weathering is the process where rocks and soil are broken down through dissolving or the freeze-thaw cycle. Natural Vegetation refers to varieties that have been untouched by human hands. Tundra is found in the arctic region and consists mainly of permafrost. Muskeg is a swampy area in the tundra overgrown with mosses and lichen due to poor drainage and slow evaporation.

Tree types in Canada are categorized into Coniferous and Deciduous. Coniferous trees (Evergreen) are cone-bearing and keep their needles all year long; they are often called "softwood" and include pine, spruce, and balsum examples. Their thick bark prevents moisture loss, and their needles contain a substance that acts as anti-freeze. Deciduous trees (Hardwood) have leaves that come off the tree in the summer (as per the source text, though traditionally autumn); examples include maple, oak, birch, and cherry. The "tree line" is the edge of the tundra, south of which the climate is warmer and the growing season longer, allowing heavy forest growth.

Soil chemistry and mixing occur through Leaching and Calcification. Leaching happens when water (rain) moves downward through the ground, carrying nutrients from the O horizon away. Calcification occurs in hot regions where water evaporates from the surface and draws up more water from below via capillary action. Capillary action brings minerals dissolved from the parent material to the surface, and together with leaching processes, contributes to the creation of perfect soil.

Mining and Industrial Extraction in Canada

Mining involves the extraction of naturally occurring minerals from the earth's crust. Major Canadian resources include Potash in Saskatchewan (used for salt and fertilizer), Copper in Ontario (used for pipes and wire), Diamonds in the NWT (used for "bling" and industrial cutters), Gold in the NMT (used for "bling" and computer parts), and Oil and Natural Gas in Alberta and the Maritmes (used for energy and chemicals). Extraction techniques include Pumping Oil using derrick or oil rigs, Open Pit or Strip Mining for surface deposits, and Underground (Shaft) Mining, which uses tunnels blasted deep into the earth.

Industry location is influenced by six main factors: Raw Materials (proximity to source reduces cost), Labour Force (availability of trained people; China is a notable example of a huge labor force and low wages), Transportation (access to water, rail, and road networks, especially cheap container shipping), Market (proximity to customers), Energy (need for cheap power, such as hydro-electric dams in northern Ontario and Quebec for aluminum smelters or pulp mills), and Government Incentives (deals like low taxes or cheap power offered to draw manufacturers like car makers).

Environmental impacts of mining include the destruction of vegetation, the storage of large volumes of unused waste-rock, disruption of ground water, and the production of dust and radon gas during blasting. Underground mining is particularly dangerous due to cave-ins. The industry also faces issues such as abandoned mines leaving scars, job loss due to resource exhaustion (boom-bust towns), and acid rain that kills forests.

The Canadian Fishing Industry and Marine Resources

Fish is a renewable resource that can last forever with proper management. The Grand Banks is a key shallow-water area off the East coast in the Atlantic Ocean. There are three types of fish: Groundfish (cod, pollock, haddock), Pelagic (salmon, herring, mackerel, tuna, caplin), and Shellfish (shrimp, lobster, oyster, scallop, mussels). Fishing methods are split into In Shore (small boats, day trips, self-employed) and Off Shore (large ships, long trips, company-owned).

Fishery types include Recreational (sport/pleasure), Subsistence (survival), and Commercial. Commercial fishing occurs in four regions: the West Coast (Pacific Ocean, specializing in Salmon and Tuna), East Coast (Atlantic Ocean/Grand Banks, specializing in Cod and Haddock), Fresh Water (Canada has the world's largest freshwater system with $2\,million$ rivers and lakes, with Manitoba producing $25\%$ of Canadian freshwater fish), and Aquaculture (farming organisms like Salmon, Mussels, and Trout). In 1992, the Atlantic Cod fishery collapsed due to overfishing; salmon is currently facing similar threats along with climate change, pollution, and invasive species.

Tectonic Evolution and Geological Processes

Geology is the study of the physical earth and the processes that create, shape, and destroy it. Tectonics involves internal forces under the crust. Alfred Wegener proposed the Continental Drift theory, stating that $300\,million$ years ago, all continents were one piece called Pangea. His proofs included the jigsaw fit of continents (India, Africa, South America), fossil evidence of the same plants and animals across oceans, similar mountain ranges (Atlantic structures), and evidence of glaciers in tropical regions. J. Tuzzo Wilson later developed Plate Tectonics theory, discovering that plates move via convection currents in the mantle. Earth's layers consist of the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

Plate boundaries include Divergent (plates move apart, creating ridges or rift valleys like the St. Lawrence River valley), Convergent (plates collide, causing folding into mountains or trenches), and Transform (plates slide by each other, such as the San Andreas Fault). Structural changes also occur through folding (mountain building from pressure), faulting (cracking of the crust), and volcanism (lava creating new rock). Erosion is the wearing down of rock by agents like wind, water (wave action), and ice. The freeze-thaw cycle breaks rocks as ice expands in cracks. Specific volcano types include Cinder Cone, Stratovolcano (Composite), and Shield volcanoes, with many located in the Ring of Fire.

Population Dynamics and Urbanization in Canada

Canada's population has grown significantly from $1,436,297$ in 1851 to $28,546,761$ in 1995. Statistics are collected through a full census every five years. Notable historical totals include $3,569,257$ in 1871, $5,371,315$ in 1901, and $14,009,429$ in 1951. Over time, the population shifted from rural to urban. In 1871, the rural population was $3,010,625$ while the urban population was only $673,632$. Today, the majority of Canadians live in urban areas, a process defined as urbanization.

Most of the population is not evenly distributed but lives in a narrow band across southern Canada near the U.S. border, where the climate is milder and the growing season longer. Cities like Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver contain over one-third of the total population. Population growth is analyzed using population pyramids to track various generations. Review topics for human systems include the First Nations treaty process, immigration issues (how people get into Canada), and the evolution of transportation and communication modes. Trade is measured by deficits and surpluses, influenced by tariffs, free trade, and globalization.

Major Ethnic Group Statistics

In 1991, the ethnic distribution was tracked by province. For Newfoundland (NFLD), the total population was $563,935$, with $442,805$ of British origin. The percentage of British origin is calculated as:

$\frac{442,805}{563,935} \times 100 = 78.5\%$

Rounded to $79\%$. Other data for 1991 populations by British origin includes: PEI ($56,405$), N.S. ($391,810$), N.B. ($236,385$), QUE. ($286,080$), ONT. ($2,536,515$), MAN. ($183,485$), SASK. ($160,720$), ALTA ($493,195$), BC ($812,470$), YUK ($5,295$), and NWT ($5,885$). French origin data for the same year includes: NFLD ($9,700$), QUE ($5,077,830$), and ONT ($527,580$).

Climate Factors and Regional Meteorological Data

Climate is affected by six major factors: Latitude, Ocean Currents, Winds/Air Masses, Elevation (Altitude), Relief, and Nearness to Water (L.O.W.E.R.N.). In general, as latitude increases, temperature decreases because the sun's rays are spread over a larger area. Altitude also affects temperature; for every increased $165\,metres$ in elevation, temperature decreases by $1^\circ C$. For example, if the temperature at sea level is $30^\circ C$, the temperature at the top of Mount Everest ($8848\,m$) would be approximately:

$8848 \div 165 \approx 53.6$

$30 - 53.6 = -23.6^\circ C$

Meteorological data for Ottawa shows average temperatures ranging from a low of $-15^\circ C$ in January to a high of $21^\circ C$ in July. Precipitation in Ottawa ranges from $65\,mm$ in February to $91\,mm$ in July. Other regional data includes Resolute (N.W.T.) at $75^\circ N$ with an average annual temperature of $-16.3^\circ C$ and Toronto (ONT) at $43^\circ N$ with an average annual temperature of $8.9^\circ C$. Maritime climates (found near coasts) tend to have smaller temperature ranges and higher precipitation compared to continental climates (found inland).

Human Systems and Liveable Communities Review

Review concepts for liveable communities include ecological footprints and the three types of population distribution: Dispersed, Concentrated, and Linear. Rural settlement patterns in southern Canada were established using Long Lots, Concession, and Section systems. Urban land use involves basic vs. non-basic businesses and the multiplier effect, which describes the economic ratio when basic industries enter or leave a town. Goods and services are ranked by threshold population into high, middle, and low order. Transit sustainability, as managed by Metrolinx, focuses on goals for sustainable cities.

Indigenous groups in Canada (Status, Non-Status, and Treaty Indians) engage in specific and comprehensive land claims with the government. The creation of Nunavut involved identifying traditional economies vs. growing economies in difficult environments for communication and transportation. The "Story of Stuff" highlights the materials economy in five stages: Extraction, Production, Distribution, Consumption, and Disposal, documenting the environmental and social costs at each stage.

Questions & Discussion

Question: What does the trend indicate about the growth of Canada's population from 1851 to the present? Answer: The slope on a broken line graph indicates a steady upward trend, showing constant growth in total population and a specific shift towards urbanization.

Question: Suggest the social services needed in the future to reflect Canada's changing population structure. Answer: As the "bulge" in the population pyramid (the 20-39 age group in 1986, likely representing the baby boomers) ages, there will be an increased need for geriatric care, specialized healthcare, and pension support.

Question: Why do the percentages in a population pyramid decrease only slightly from younger to older age groups in developed nations like Canada? Answer: This suggests high life expectancy and consistent healthcare, as fewer people are dying at younger ages compared to developing nations.

Question: What is the difference between the words AFFECT and EFFECT? Answer: Affect is usually a verb meaning to influence something ("Climate affects vegetation"), while Effect is usually a noun meaning the result or consequence ("The effect of the storm was severe").