Child, Family, and Community: Gender Issues (Chapter 11)
Core Concepts of Sex and Gender Roles
Definitions and Distinctions
Understanding the distinction between sex and gender is fundamental to working with families in early care.
Sex: A biological term. It refers to a person's body parts, specifically the physical organs that distinguish males from females. It is also referred to as an activity.
Gender: A social term. Definitions of gender differ based on culture, individual ideas, or family values. Society typically defines the roles of masculinity and femininity, which encompass appropriate appearance, attitudes, and behaviors.
The Fluidity of Gender
In some societies, masculinity and femininity are strictly regulated, while in others, they are fluid. Modern understanding in the USA is beginning to acknowledge the complexity of these subjects.
Socialization vs. Rejecting Socialization: While most children are socialized in a gender that matches their biological sex, some children may be socialized to the opposite gender (Money & Ehrhardt, 1973), or they may reject their socialization because they feel like the opposite gender.
Gender Spectrum: An organization in San Francisco, California, called Gender Spectrum, serves as a resource for information regarding gender fluidity.
Biological Influences: Factors such as exposure to hormones during pregnancy and genetic influences contribute to the development of sexual identity and gender roles. Science continues to debate whether differences are primarily biological or learned through differential socialization.
Research on Socialization and Physiology
The "Odd Man Out" Test
A study reported in The Economist (2007) explored whether spatial awareness is biological or learned.
Initial Results: Men had a success rate of:
Women had a success rate of:
The Intervention: Volunteers played an "action-packed, shoot-‘em-up" video game for
Control Group: Played a calm game called "Ballance" for
Post-Test Results: Women who played the action-packed game improved their scores to reach the same average as the men. These gains remained stable after
Conclusion: This suggests that certain "natural" gender differences in spatial spotting are likely learned rather than biologically determined.
Gender Assignment and the Case of "Joan"
Research by Money and Ehrhardt (1973) initially suggested that babies are born gender-neutral and can be successfully assigned a gender through socialization and hormonal treatment, particularly in cases of ambiguous genitalia or botched circumscriptions.
The Joan/David Reimer Case: Researchers Milton Diamond and Keith Sigmundson followed up on a male baby who was surgically made female after a botched circumcision. Named "Joan" in the study, the child rebelled against the female assignment, eventually choosing between suicide or living as a male at age
Outcome: After learning the truth from her father, she underwent a sex change operation to align her body with her male identity, disputing the theory that gender is entirely learned.
Same-Sex Parenting and Equity
Impact of Same-Sex Households
Research suggests that children raised by same-sex parents do not differ significantly from those in heterosexual families regarding:
Gender-role socialization.
Sexual orientation development (children are no more likely to be gay or lesbian).
Gender-role behavior.
Empowerment and Stereotypes
Adults are encouraged to counteract stereotypes to help children fulfill their potential:
Boys: Should learn to express feelings and be nurturing.
Girls: Should learn to be independent, assertive, and capable problem solvers.
Historical Context and Equity Issues
The Evolution of Women's Rights
Traditional gender roles have historically been used to consider women inferior and deny them rights.
Voting Rights: The women's rights movement began in
It took
for women to gain the right to vote (the 19th Amendment in 1920).
Barriers for Women of Color: Literacy taxes, intimidation, and violence prevented many women of color from voting until the 1964 Voting Rights Act and its
amendments.
Property Status: Historically, women were often considered the property of their husbands, alongside children and cattle.
Modern Economic and Social Gaps
The Glass Ceiling: An invisible barrier that keeps women at lower levels in the business world.
Wage Gap: Women still earn less for equal work than men.
Violence and Legal Protection: Animal abuse was illegal for more than
before child abuse was recognized. Spousal abuse laws occurred even later.
Advocacy in Action: Communicating Concerns
Case Study: Marion Cowee, Early Childhood Educator
Marion noticed three-year-old Alice being berated and sat upon by a peer, Evan. Alice showed no defense, crying, or struggle. Marion shared her observations with Alice's mother. Shortly after, Alice and her mother moved to a safe house to escape an abusive husband.
Lesson: Advocacy can simply be reporting observations to help adults make protective decisions for themselves and their children.
Toys, Clothing, and Marketing
The Business of Gender
The Princess Industry: In
Disney made
marketing princess items.
Clothing as Socialization: Boys' clothes are often designed for play and movement, while girls' clothes (e.g., lacy dresses, sequins, slippery-soled shoes) are often "for show" and can restrict physical activity like crawling or climbing.
Unisex Trends: During the 1960s and 1970s, "unisex" fashion was popular. Long hair on boys was common. Today, marketing is more strictly divided into "boys’ sections" and "girls’ sections."
Environmental Influences in Schools
Block Area: Often dominated by boys; provides experiences in spatial relations, math concepts (multiples of square units), and physics.
Dramatic Play Corner: Often marketed to girls; allows for nurturing and emotional exploration.
Teacher Strategies: To break barriers, teachers can arrange blocks near dolls, use "girls only" signs in the block area, or add water/tools to the housekeeping corner to attract boys.
The Power of Language
Gender-Neutral Terminology
Replacing gender-specific titles with neutral ones broadens children's expectations:
"Fireman" $\rightarrow$ "Firefighter"
"Policeman" $\rightarrow$ "Police officer"
"Chairman" $\rightarrow$ "Chair" or "Chairperson"
Conversational Politics
Interruption: Studies show men tend to interrupt women more than vice versa. This is an indicator of power and importance. Teachers should intervene when boys interrupt girls to ensure girls are empowered.
Assertive Language: Adults should avoid "hedging" or over-polite language that dilutes authority.
- Example of Hedging: "Your shoes are sort of muddy. It'd be really nice if you took them off."
- Example of Assertive Language: "Please take off your muddy shoes. They'll dirty the floor."
Modeling and Media Influence
Silent Messages
Children imitate the adults in their lives:
If girls see female teachers waiting for a man to fix a toilet, they learn a message about female capability.
If boys see a male teacher hand a crying child to a female teacher, they learn that nurturing is not a male role.
Media and Sexualization
So Sexy So Soon: Diane Levin (2009) discusses the harmful effects of the sexualization of girls.
APA Report (2007): Equating attractiveness with sex appeal leads to low self-esteem, depression, and high-risk behavior in girls.
Literacy: Parents should watch media with children and critique the "sex object" narrative.
Books: Historical readers (e.g., Dick and Jane) showed active males and passive females. Even today, many books feature male animal protagonists more often than female ones.
Differential Socialization Practices
Differential Treatment from Parents
At Birth: Parents often perceive daughters as fragile and sons as tough.
Interaction Styles: Fathers often engage in "rough and tumble" play with sons while talking more to daughters.
Assumptions vs. Reality: Christia Spears-Brown (2014) notes that research shows baby girls are NOT more emotional than baby boys, and activity levels are nearly identical; differences emerge due to the treatment based on these assumptions.
Differential Treatment in Schools
Serbin, O'Leary, Kent, and Tolnick (1973) found:
Teachers paid more attention to boys’ disruptive behavior (reinforcing it).
Teachers gave girls attention only when they were physically close to the teacher.
Boys are often praised for abilities ("You are strong/clever"), while girls are praised for appearance ("You look pretty").
Dialogue: Gender Roles and Cultural Differences
Parent A (US-born) and Parent B (born in the "old country") discuss school policies:
Parent B: Expresses distress over boys playing house/wearing dresses and the teacher's request for her daughter to wear pants/sneakers for climbing. She fears her daughter will lose her culture and fail to find a husband if she doesn't act "properly."
Parent A: Suggests that while she also dislikes her daughter getting dirty, the argument about sexism and preventing oppression is convincing. She argues that self-worth can be part of their culture without accepting inferior status.
Conflict: The tension between maintaining cultural heritage and adopting gender equity goals.
Guidelines for Educators and Parents
Develop Awareness of Stereotypes: Point out sexist images in books, TV, and commercials.
Create Nonsexist Environments: Ensure books show single-parent, gay/lesbian, and extended families with men/women in nontraditional roles.
Watch Self-Behavior: Monitor if you treat genders differently or allow different levels of physical freedom.
Teach Anti-Bias Attitudes: Help children recognize and challenge injustice (e.g., stopping the exclusion of girls from a "fort").
Develop Empathy: Model and reward sensitive behavior in all children.
Teach Problem-Solving: Encourage children to troubleshoot, negotiate, and expand their perspectives.
Promote Physical/Manual Skills: Get girls involved in activities for strength/dexterity and boys in activities requiring manual coordination (e.g., wood scrap sculptures).
Address Clothing Barriers: Recognize when dresses or slippery shoes restrict a child's ability to participate in active play.
Self-Reflection: Educators must evaluate if they deep-down believe one sex is more deserving of power, as a lack of belief in equity will be communicated to children.