Adulthood
Chapter 1
Scientific Method:
Importance of Replication
It ensures findings are reliable and valid across studies.
Examples of Scientific Observation:
Naturalistic settings: Homes, schools, public spaces.
Laboratory: Mirrors, cameras.
Data analysis: Birth registries for fertility rates.
Methods of Science
Surveys:
Specific problems not fully listed:
Recall bias, sampling error, question order bias, and inadequate response options.
Examples of poor survey design were not elaborated.
Meta-Analysis:
Combines multiple studies to reduce bias.
Described as a "study of studies."
Designs in Developmental Science
Examples of Study Designs:
Cross-sectional: Language development across age groups.
Longitudinal: Social skills development from infancy to adulthood.
Cross-sequential: Motor skills at different ages tracked over time.
Cautions and Challenges in Science
Correlation ≠ Causation:
Example given:
positive correlation between ice cream sales and murder rates but explained by a third variable (e.g., heat or summer).
Ethics in Research:
Example of unethical study: Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
Deception about treatment (placebos given instead of penicillin).
Participants lured with promises like free meals, transportation, and burial costs.
Continued unethical practices even after penicillin became the standard treatment (1947–1972).
The Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Nature (examples omitted):
Aggression: Genetic predisposition to aggressive behavior.
Language Acquisition: Innate ability with varying linguistic aptitudes.
Athletic Ability: Genetic factors determining traits like coordination and muscle composition.
Nurture (examples omitted):
Aggression: Influence of parenting styles and exposure to violence.
Athletic Ability: Role of coaching and training in shaping skills.
Developmental Characteristics
Multicontextual:
Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner):
Chronosystem example: Historical events like COVID-19 influencing development.
Multicultural:
Development shaped by intersectionality of identities (roles, positions, worldviews).
Plasticity:
Dynamic Systems Approach:
Emphasizes interrelations among all aspects (multidirectional, multicultural, multicontextual, multidisciplinary).
Rethinking Adult Development (Arnett et al., 2020):
Changes in Adulthood:
Delay in milestones like marriage and parenthood.
Structural changes in family and work patterns.
Increasing role of grandparents.
Impact of electronic media use (positive and negative).
Chapter 2: Theories of Development
Psychodynamic Theory
Freud
Psychosexual Stages:
Each stage is associated with an erogenous zone.
Fixation: Being stuck at a stage due to unresolved conflict.
Examples omitted:
Erikson
Three adult stages not fully elaborated:
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Focus on love and companionship.
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Contributing to future generations or stagnating.
Integrity vs. Despair: Reflecting on life’s meaning or regretting missed goals.
Behaviorism
Pavlov
Classical Conditioning:
Learning through association: Neutral stimulus → Conditioned Response.
Watson
Little Albert Experiment:
Conditioned fear of white rats by pairing with loud noises.
Ethics: Fear was never de-conditioned.
Experiment criticized for causing lasting distress.
Skinner
Operant Conditioning:
Focused on reinforcement and punishment:
Reinforcement increases desired behaviors.
Punishment decreases unwanted behaviors.
Bandura
Social Learning Theory:
Bobo Doll Experiment:
Demonstrated children imitating aggressive behaviors observed in adults.
Jean Piaget:
Cognitive Theory
Examples of Assimilation and Accommodation:
Assimilation: Calling a cat a dog because both have four legs.
Accommodation: Adjusting schema to differentiate between dogs and cats.
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor (Birth–2 years):
Development of object permanence.
Preoperational (2–6 years):
Egocentrism: Viewing the world from one’s own perspective.
Lack of conservation:
Example: A tall glass appears to hold more milk than a short glass.
Concrete Operational (6–11 years):
Logical thinking, understanding conservation.
Formal Operational (12+ years):
Abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.
Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky:
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
Skills learners can achieve with guidance (scaffolding).
Emphasis on cultural tools and practices shaping development.
Evolutionary Theory
Survival and Reproduction:
Development driven by needs to survive and pass on genes.
Comparison of Theories:
Chapter 17:
Age Range: 18-25
Cultural Shifts:
Delayed transition to full adulthood.
Changing societal expectations about work, marriage, and parenting.
Physical Peak:
Full height by 16 (girls) and 18 (boys); muscle growth continues into the 20s.
Best physical performance (e.g., strength, speed).
Low Disease Rates: Rare chronic conditions or disease-related deaths.
Protective Functions
Organ Reserve: Extra capacity in organs for stress recovery; declines with age.
Homeostasis: Rapid physiological equilibrium adjustments in early adulthood.
Allostasis: Long-term wear and tear from stress, leading to allostatic load.
Health Influences
Sleep: Poor habits increase allostatic load; impacted by social and psychological factors.
Exercise: Reduces illness risks (e.g., heart disease, diabetes).
Healthy habits in early adulthood mitigate middle-age risks.
Diet: Key to long-term physiological and psychological health.
Set Point: Body weight regulated by homeostatic processes.
BMI (Body Mass Index): Assesses weight relative to height; limited as a health measure.
Appearance: Heightened concerns linked to attraction and employment opportunities.
Sexual Peak: Vigorous reproductive system; high fertility and low complications.
Contraception Advances: Reduced birth rates but increased sexual activity.
STIs (e.g., HPV):
Half of new cases worldwide occur in people under 26.
Vaccination programs (e.g., for HPV) show success.
Risk-Taking Behaviors
Accidents and Death:
Leading causes: accidents, homicides, suicides.
Peak risk-taking around age 20.
Extreme Sports: Popular despite high danger levels.
Drug Use: Peaks around age 20, declining after.
Drug Abuse: Physiological or psychological dependency.
Chapter 18:
Cognitive Development Approaches
Stage Approach: Shifts in thought processes beyond adolescence.
Psychometric Approach: Longitudinal intelligence analysis.
Information-Processing Approach: Examines encoding, storing, and retrieval of data.
Postformal Thought
Characteristics:
Practical, flexible, and creative thinking.
Less impulsive and reactive; more imaginative.
Stereotype Threat: Fear of negative judgment disrupts cognition and emotional regulation.
Dialectical Thinking
Definition: Advanced cognitive process recognizing conflicting ideas and integrating them (thesis → antithesis → synthesis).
Examples:
Piaget’s disequilibrium drives learning.
Erikson’s crises (e.g., intimacy vs. isolation) promote growth.
Cultural Influence:
Eastern Thinking: Holistic and synthesis-focused.
Western Thinking: Dichotomous (e.g., good vs. evil).
Cognitive Flexibility
Key Trait: Enables adjustment to unforeseen events and diverse opinions.
Postformal Cognition Hallmark: Combines emotional and intellectual adaptability.
Higher Education and Cognitive Growth
Benefits: Correlated with wealth, health, and societal contributions.
Massification: Broad access to higher education benefits communities.
Barriers:
Parental SES predicts degree attainment.
High drop-out rates due to financial challenges.
The Matthew Effect: “The rich get richer; the poor stay poor.”
College and Cognition
Critical Thinking Development: Evidence of limited advancement for many students.
Challenges: Decline in academic rigor; stress from corporate models in education.
Diversity: Growth in representation across gender, ethnic, and sexual identities enriches the academic experience.
Technology Revolution:
More jobs now need advanced education and skills, so young people spend longer in school and delay starting stable careers.
Sexual Revolution:
Birth control and changing views on sex mean relationships are no longer tied to marriage, giving young adults more freedom to explore.
Women's Movement:
Women have more career and education opportunities, so many delay marriage and having kids to focus on their goals.
Youth Movement:
Society values staying young, making adulthood seem less appealing, so people take longer to take on adult responsibilities.