Comprehensive Study Guide for Language and Literature Graduation Exam (Graduation Exam)

Definitions of Text and Linguistic Procedures

A text is defined as a linguistic expression, whether oral or written, that possesses a communicative intention and a unity of sense. In literary and linguistic studies, differentiating various techniques is essential for comprehension. Paraphrasing is the act of enunciating with one's own words what is expressed in a text, effectively explaining the author's meaning without necessarily using the original phrasing. Conversely, decontextualizing involves recounting the reality of a true fact without altering it within the same context in which it occurred.

The technique of underlining is crucial for reading comprehension as it increases the critical sense of reading by allowing the reader to differentiate essential information from secondary details. When underlining, one should focus on keywords, proper names, dates, and relevant details, as well as particles that mark syntax (such as "pero" or "aunque") to ensure the underlined portions retain meaning on their own. Similarly, a semantic map is a procedure used to synthesize, relate, and hierarchize concepts contained within a topic in a significant manner. In the realm of journalism, an editorial should be written directly and without unnecessary detours.

Ecuadorian Literature and the Generation of the 30s

Jorge Icaza Coronel is a prominent figure in Ecuadorian literature, specifically within the genre of the Indigenist novel. His most famous work is associated with social realism and the struggles of indigenous populations. Ecuadorian realism was officially inaugurated with the publication of the book of short stories titled "Los que se van" (Those who leave), which featured authors such as Demetrio Aguilera Malta, Joaquín Gallegos Lara, and Enrique Gil Gilbert. These three writers formed the core of what is known as the Guayaquil Group or the Generation of the Thirty ($1930$).

Demetrio Aguilera Malta's work "El Cholo que odió la plata" (The Cholo who hated money) is a significant piece of Ecuadorian realism. It describes characters like Banchón, who worked, saved money, and eventually became rich by opening a canteen and "poisoning" his own people, acquiring islands, boats, and women in the process. The narrative focus remains on the "cholos" of the coast, described as strong and small individuals modeled from the same beautiful and robust clay. Other notable figures in the Ecuadorian narrative from $1960$ onwards include Alicia Yánez, Jorge Enrique Adum, and Iván Egüez.

Latin American Literary History and the Boom

The first novel written in Latin America is considered to be "El Periquillo Sarniento" by José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi. Latin American literature also includes significant poets such as José Santos Chocano, Gabriela Mistral, and Amado Nervo; the latter is the author of the poem "La sombra inquieta". In the context of broader Latin American literature, the "Boom" was a movement characterized by the search for new writing styles and forms to open the region to the world. A key work belonging to this movement is "Pedro Páramo" by Juan Rulfo.

Gabriel García Márquez is one of the most celebrated authors of this era, writing masterpieces such as "El coronel no tiene quien le escriba", "Los cuentos de la mama grande", "Crónica de una muerte anunciada", and "Cien años de soledad". Other important works mentioned in this context include "La Linares" by Iván Egüez, "El triple salto" by Coca Ponce, and "Pájara la memoria". The literary style of Magic Realism also emerged predominantly from Latin America, blending reality with fantastical elements.

Logic, Fallacies, and Cognitive Processes

Logical reasoning can be divided into several processes. Induction is applied when a general conclusion or information is reached from a set of particular data. In contrast, deduction involves extracting specific conclusions from general premises. A thesis is defined as the phrase that indicates the stance or position of a person in an argumentation, while an argument of exemplification is a concrete case used to illustrate a problem of a general nature.

Fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument. An ad hominem fallacy (directed against the man) occurs when an argument attacks the person making a claim rather than the claim itself; for example, "Ecologists say we consume too much energy, but don't listen because ecologists always exaggerate." An ad ignorantiam fallacy appeals to ignorance, while an ad baculum fallacy appeals to force or the "stick." Inference is a cognitive process through which explicit or implicit information is extracted from texts or discourses.

Grammar, Lexicon, and Linguistic Vices

Linguistic performance can be hindered by various "vices." Neologisms refer to the exaggerated use of new words, often entering the language via new technologies, fashions, foods, or worldviews. Archaisms, on the other hand, are obsolete words. Solecisms are errors in syntax or construction, such as saying "hicieron fríos intensos este mes." Barbarisms include the use of incorrectly spelled or pronounced words like "haiga," "luvió," "juagar," or "cantenos." A catachresis occurs when a word is used metaphorically to name something that lacks a specific name, or through common misuse like "En la tarde iré a ver una película."

Linguistic variations also exist. A phonetic variation refers to the pronunciation of certain sounds, while a lexical variation refers to the specific terms or meanings used in different regions. Dysphemisms are words with a pejorative charge used as insults. Diglossia is a linguistic situation where two languages (such as Spanish and ancestral languages like Quichua) coexist in a society, but one has more prestige or official status than the other. This in Ecuador was partly caused by the establishment of the Republic without the full recognition of diverse nationalities.

Classical and World Literature

Classical Greek literature includes epic poems and tragedies. The "Iliad" is classified as an epic (epopeya). Sophocles is a renowned tragic playwright who wrote works such as "Electra" and "Edipo Rey" (Oedipus Rex). "Edipo Rey" explores themes of the inevitability of fate and the impossibility of humans to escape their destiny. Romanticism, which emerged as a rejection of classicism, is characterized by the exaltation of feelings over reason. Examples include the poetry of Dolores Veintimilla, who was a romantic poet in Ecuador because her work prioritized emotion. Modernism was founded by Rubén Darío and served as a pivotal movement in Hispanic literature.

Science, Technology, and Reading Comprehension Analysis

Reading comprehension often involves identifying central ideas in complex texts. In the field of medicine, scientists at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina, have successfully designed and transplanted artificial muscle tissue into a mouse that can repair itself. This discovery of self-regenerating artificial tissue is expected to assist humans in recovering from muscle injuries. The study underscores that artificial tissue can regenerate within a living organism just as natural tissue would.

Regarding the history of technology, the first steps toward modern video games occurred in the $1940s$ with the development of flight simulators for pilot training. The third generation of computers in $1962$ saw a drastic reduction in size and cost. In $1969$, the microprocessor was born, becoming the heart of computers and consoles. Important milestones include the floppy disk in $1970$, the game "PONG" in $1972$, and Atari's first cartridge system in $1977$. By the $1990s$, companies like Sega and Nintendo expanded the market massively. However, this growth prompted concerns in medicine, psychology, and sociology regarding the potential negative effects of video games on conduct.

Economic Data: Oil Prices and Industry Impacts

Oil quotes rose in New York ($Nymex$) and London ($ICE$) due to anticipated monetary policy decisions by the European Central Bank ($BCE$) and stock reports in the United States. The "Light Sweet Crude" ($WTI$) for March delivery rose $USD\,1.31$, closing at $USD\,47.78$. In London, North Sea Brent for the same delivery closed at $USD\,49.3$, an increase of $USD\,1.04$. This price hike was partly driven by announcements of mass layoffs in the industry, which signaled a potential decrease in production. Within one month, the three major oil service firms—Schlumberger, Halliburton, and Baker Hughes—announced a combined total of $17,000$ layoffs.

Ethics, Values, and Proverbs in Literature

Literature often serves as a vehicle for ethical and civic values. In Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's "The Little Prince," the secret shared is that "one can only see well with the heart; the essential is invisible to the eyes," highlighting the value of empathy and internal perception. In Jorge Luis Borges' "The House of Asterion," the protagonist's isolation and the ritualistic killing of men suggest that exclusion can generate deep suffering and alienation. José Martí's "Versos Sencillos" emphasize solidarity with the "poor of the earth."

George Orwell's "Animal Farm" presents a critique of power and the manipulation of language with the famous phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others." This reflects how rhetoric can be used to mask inequality. In terms of common wisdom, the proverb "¿A dónde va Vicente? Donde va la gente" refers to being easily influenced by others, suggesting it is better to forge one's own path. The proverb "Si quieres que otro se ría, cuenta tus penas María" suggests that discretion can prevent unnecessary mockery.

Professional and Academic Skills

In professional settings, such as a job interview, the interviewee must use formal language. The structure of an interview typically consists of three parts: Presentation, Body, and Closure. When consulting resources, a digital library is distinct because it contains not only books but also digital files such as audio recordings. In writing, a calligram is a type of poem where the visual arrangement of words forms an image related to the poem's theme, often associated with the work of Jorge Carrera Andrade.

Academic integrity involves making correct inferences. For example, if a $25$-year-old man in a cybercafe checks his credit card statements and later tells someone on the phone he can buy a car in two weeks, one might infer he was verifying automobile prices or his financial capacity online. Identifying the main idea of a text requires separating the core message—such as the feasibility of Roland Belz's modern classic carriage project (Aaglander)—from supporting details about the time spent developing it or the company's current success.

Synonyms and Antonyms (Verbal Reasoning)

In verbal reasoning, identifying synonyms is essential. The word "juglar" corresponds to a poet, and "copioso" means abundant. "Jovial" is a synonym for cheerful (alegre), and "coloquio" means dialogue. "Lóbrego" maps to melancholy or somber, while "brumosa" refers to a cloudy or misty afternoon. The relationship "Animar-Dinamizar" is one of increasing intensity or action; a differing relationship would be "Limar-Picar."

Antonyms are used to reverse the sense of a sentence. The opposite of "aseada" (clean/neat) is "inmunda" (filthy). For "discordia" (discord), the opposite is "avenencia" (agreement). The antonym of "ambiguo" (ambiguous) is "transparente" (transparent). If someone is "abandonado" (abandoned), the opposite action would be they were "ampararon" (protected/sheltered). Additionally, in specific contexts, the synonym of "arrugarse" (to shrivel/coward) is "amilanarse" (to be daunted).