Unit 7, Topic 2: Debates Over American Imperialism

Definitions and Historical Context of Imperialism

Definition of Imperialism: Imperialism is defined as a process by which a powerful state extends its authority over another weaker state specifically to exploit that state's resources.
Forms of Authority: This authority can manifest in several ways, including: * Economic control. * Direct political intervention or annexation.
Consequences of Imperialism: Regardless of the specific method of control, the ultimate outcome is always a loss of sovereignty and self-determination for the people who are colonized.
The American Imperial Paradox: * The United States was founded as an imperial colony of Britain (referred to as "Big Mama Britain"). * The American Founders fought for independence because they believed imperial empires were inherently evil and exploitative. * It took approximately $100$ years for American policy makers to transition from fighting against an imperial state to establishing one of their own.
Shift in Perception: At the end of the $19^{th}$ century, the United States reached a point where building an empire was viewed as a reasonable proposition due to changing economic and global realities.
Economic Drivers: Policy makers and wealthy industrialists began searching for opportunities outside the borders of the United States to secure new markets for American products and to expand access to raw materials.
Global Context: During this time, European states were developing massive sea-based empires and colonizing various parts of the world.
Timeline of U.S. Entry: The United States was late to the overseas expansion effort because the domestic challenges of the American Civil War and the subsequent Reconstruction era occupied national attention throughout much of the $19^{th}$ century.
Readiness for Empire: By the end of the $19^{th}$ century, the rapid expansion of American industry and the country's growing wealth positioned the U.S. to join the ranks of European imperial powers.
Precedents for Expansion: * The United States had a history of expansionist policy, often at the expense of Native Americans who lost their land. * The Mexican-American War resulted in Mexico losing approximately $\frac{1}{3}$ of its territory to the United States. * The concept of Manifest Destiny had long been a central tenet of American identity.

Pro-Imperialist Arguments: Economic and Ideological Foundations

The Debate Begins: As the push for expansion grew, a fierce national debate emerged between those favoring empire and those opposing it.
Imperialist Viewpoint: Proponents of imperialism believed that the United States was destined to expand its culture and commerce globally.
Argument 1: Economic Opportunity: Money was the primary motivator for imperial expansion. * William Seward's Vision: Much of the economic rationale was rooted in the foreign policy of Secretary of State William Seward, who served under Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. * The Purchase of Alaska: In $1868$ , Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska from Russia. * "Seward's Folly": Because Alaska was a massive, non-contiguous piece of frozen land, many Americans initially mocked the purchase, calling it "Seward's Folly." * Long-term Assets: During the Panic of $1893$ , a severe economic depression, Alaska became seen as a strategic asset. Policy makers believed the solution to a failing domestic economy was opening new markets in Asia to sell American goods; Alaska served as an essential gateway to those markets.
Argument 2: Ideological Theories and Social Darwinism: * Social Darwinism: This ideology applied the biological theory of "survival of the fittest" to social and national realities. * Logic of the Elite: Social Darwinists argued that the wealthy were rich because they were the best adapted to the industrial environment, while the poor remained poor because they were less fit. * Application to Nations: By extending this logic, imperialists argued that because industrialization had made the U.S. rich and powerful, it was among the "fittest" nations in the world. * American Exceptionalism: This was the belief that the United States is a nation uniquely situated above others, possessing a flourishing civilization. * Duty to Civilize: Imperialists believed it was the duty of Americans to spread the "blessings" of their civilization to "lesser" people groups. * Josiah Strong: A minister who wrote the book Our Country. He argued that the Anglo-Saxon race, especially the American version, was the peak of human evolution. * Christian Duty: Strong asserted that it was a Christian duty for Americans to acquire an empire to spread Christianity and Western civilization to "backward and dark people." * The "White Man's Burden": This impulse was most famously articulated by Rudyard Kipling in his poem of the same name.

Pro-Imperialist Arguments: Global Strategy and the Frontier Thesis

Argument 3: Global Competition and Naval Supremacy: * Throughout the $19^{th}$ century, European powers expanded rapidly in Asia and Africa. * Global Balance of Power: Policy makers feared that if the U.S. did not expand, it could not compete with European states, as power was increasingly measured by the size of a nation's empire. * Alfred Thayer Mahan: A U.S. naval officer who wrote The Influence of Sea Power upon History in $1890$ . * Mahan’s Thesis: He argued that every powerful state in history possessed a navy strong enough to make other nations tremble. * Naval Investment: Based on this reasoning, the U.S. invested heavily in naval power. * Legislative Action: In $1886$ , the federal government appropriated funds for $2$ state-of-the-art steel-hulled naval ships. By the end of the century, they had added $3$ more.
Argument 4: The Closing of the Western Frontier: * $1890$ Census: The census revealed that the American western frontier had been settled and no longer existed as a distinct line of expansion. * Cultural Significance: The frontier had long been considered essential to America's economic and cultural development. * Frederick Jackson Turner: A historian who published the "Frontier Thesis." * The Safety Valve Theory: Turner argued that expansion was the primary way American democracy flourished. He viewed the disappearance of the frontier as an existential threat. * New Frontiers: Turner concluded that for American democracy to survive and thrive, the nation needed a new frontier, which would be found through overseas expansion.

Anti-Imperialist Arguments and the National Opposition

The Anti-Imperialist League: Formed in $1898$ specifically in response to the United States' attempt to annex the Philippines.
Argument 1: Principle of Self-Determination: * Opponents argued that imperial expansion violated the fundamental principles of liberty. * The "Spirit of $1776$ ": They invoked American founding principles, arguing that every nation has the right to self-governance. * Consent of the Governed: Ruling another nation as a colony was seen as a violation of the American commitment to the idea that government must derive its power from the consent of the governed.
Argument 2: Tradition of Isolationism: * Washington’s Farewell Address: Anti-imperialists recalled George Washington’s warning against "entangling alliances," fearing that overseas colonies would drag the U.S. into foreign conflicts. * Monroe Doctrine: They viewed isolationism as consistent with the Monroe Doctrine, which demanded Europeans stay out of the Western Hemisphere while the U.S. remained out of European affairs.
Argument 3: Racial Logic and Anglo-Saxon Superiority: * Ironically, many anti-imperialists utilized racial arguments more heavily than the imperialists to justify their opposition. * Andrew Carnegie: One of the most famous anti-imperialists, he wrote an article in $1898$ titled "Distant Possessions." * Fear of Non-White Populations: Carnegie argued that annexing the Philippines would add millions of non-white people to the U.S. population. * Anglo-Saxon Purity: He warned that it would be impossible for the Anglo-Saxon race to be reproduced in places like the Philippines. Therefore, expansion should be stopped to maintain the perceived superiority and purity of the Anglo-Saxon race.
Outcome of the Debate: Ultimately, the Imperialists won the national debate.
The Shift to Empire: Following the American victory in the Spanish-American War, the United States fully embraced imperialism and established a significant overseas empire.