Notes on Commonwealth by Hobbes

Part II: Of Commonwealth

Chapter XVII: Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth

• Final Cause of Commonwealth

  • Men have a natural love for liberty and dominion over others.

  • Restraint upon themselves necessary for preservation and a more contented life.

  • Purpose: To escape the miserable condition of war caused by natural passions when no visible power exists to keep them in check (as discussed in Chapter XIII).

• Laws of Nature and Human Behavior

  • Laws of nature include justice, equity, modesty, mercy, etc., summarized as treating others as one wishes to be treated.

  • These laws require the fear of some power for enforcement; without this, they are at odds with human natural passions such as partiality, pride, revenge, etc.

  • Covenants made in the absence of power are merely words, lacking power to secure individuals.

  • Societies of small families engaged in plunder were seen as honorable, leading to the rise of stronger powers for security.

• Security and Collective Action

  • Security does not arise from merely joining a small number of men since the odds can favor an attack.

  • True security comes from a multitude large enough to deter potential enemies.

  • Unity of purpose is essential; if many act based on individual judgments without a common power, chaos ensues, leading to internal conflicts.

• Comparison with Non-Human Creatures

  • Bees and ants live sociably but lack the capacity for coercive power to maintain order, differing fundamentally from humans.

  • Reasons why humans need a common power:

  • Competition for honor and dignity among men leads to envy, hatred, and war.

  • The common good varies from private interests, unlike those non-human creatures.

  • Humans’ ability to reason leads to criticism and attempts at reform, resulting in chaos.

  • Use of language enables manipulation of perceptions, leading to instability.

  • Human aggression peaks during times of ease and abundance.

• Formation of a Commonwealth

  • To prevent civil war, individuals must confer all their power to one person or assembly, merging wills into one.

  • Individuals authorizing one representative creates unity (Commonwealth = Latin: Civitas).

  • This authority is regarded as a Mortal God, representing collective peace and defense under the Immortal God.

• Definition and Sovereign Power

  • A Commonwealth is defined as one person acting on behalf of a multitude via mutual covenants.

  • Sovereign is the figure who carries this authority, and subjects are all others under this power.

  • Sovereign power is established either through:

  • Natural force (conquest/subjugation).

  • Voluntary agreement among individuals seeking protection.

Chapter XVIII: Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution

• Instituted Commonwealth

  • A commonwealth is instituted when people agree that a man or assembly represents them, binding all to uphold its judgments as though they were their own.

• Consequences of Institution

  • Covenant means individuals are not bound by prior agreements that conflict with new governance.

  • Subjects cannot lawfully change the form of their government without consent.

  • No new covenant can be made without the approval of the sovereign, as breaking this could lead to unjust consequences for all.

• Sovereign's Actions

  • Actions of the sovereign cannot be justly accused by subjects as all share in the collective authority.

  • Sovereigns cannot justly be punished by subjects for their actions.

  • Sovereign power includes rights to define laws, make decisions regarding war and peace, appoint officials and judges, and enforce laws of honor.