Experts as Claimsmakers Notes

In societies where religious authorities are influential, social problems are often discussed using religious language.
In societies where medical authorities are influential social problems are often understood in medical terms.
Religious explanations for tragic events often face skepticism today.
- Examples:
  - Earthquake in Haiti (2010).
  - Deaths of U.S. Soldiers.

U.S. society uses medical terminology (e.g., diseases, disorders, addictions) to describe many social problems.
"Deadly sins" medicalized:
- Lust = Sexual addiction.
- Gluttony = Food addiction.
- Sloth = Chronic fatigue.

The absence of "deadly sins" can also be medicalized, leading to treatment when people don't have enough of something.
- Drugs enhancing sexual performance (lust).
- Cosmetic surgery (pride, envy).

Definition: The process of defining a troubling condition as a medical matter.
Examples:
- An adult who views pornography excessively may be diagnosed as an addict.
- A child who frequently gets in trouble at school may be diagnosed as having a disorder.

People given a medical diagnosis are seen as less responsible for their actions.
- Example: Addiction may be viewed with compassion if believed to be driving behavior.
- Example: Someone with a learning disability can be supported rather than stigmatized.
Troubling conditions are viewed as the result of individual shortcomings rather than larger structural issues.
- Example: Heart attacks may be analyzed focusing on eating behaviors, overlooking workplace stress or pollution exposure.
Physicians and medical organizations shape how troubling conditions are viewed since they "own" these conditions.
- The American Medical Association influences strategies for reducing healthcare costs and best practices.
Experts are influential due to their knowledge and access to policymakers (inside claimsmakers).

Medicalization increased drastically in the 20th century due to:
1. Increased professional standards.
2. Increased quality of care.
3. Increased expectations of professionals.
Prestige of medicine allowed medical professionals to expand authority (e.g., drug addiction, crime, unconventional sexual activity).
The American Psychiatric Association developed the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) after WWII.
- Each version included a broader range of mental disorders.
- More behaviors were discussed in medical terms.
Non-medical professionals started using medical terminology as well.
- Consider the twelve-step model and its use for addiction.
- Ex-users are often recruited to provide treatment.
- Some groups are member-led only (e.g., AA).

Groups utilize domain expansion to entrench gains.
Professionals want medical insurance to cover their services.
Federal government defining alcohol and drug problems as medical problems institutionalized experts as owners of the alcohol problem.

Science has drastically transformed the world (e.g., Industrial Revolution, Media Technology, Transportation).
Science depends on accumulating evidence by testing hypotheses that can be proven true or false.
Science isn’t perfect and can suffer from:
- Poorly organized research projects.
- Missing data.
- Misinterpreted or falsified data.
Making conclusions about research topics can take a long time.
There are often disagreements between scientists and non-scientists over findings.
Consider debates over climate change:
- Is it occurring?
- What is causing it to occur?
- What should be done?
News media are often too quick to report preliminary findings that are later proven false.
This creates confusion and leads to questioning scientific authority.
Even when scientific knowledge is established, culture lag occurs: people still need to determine what to do with it.
Research questions and answers are most clear-cut in the physical sciences, less so in the biological sciences, and least so in the social sciences.

Scientific debate centers around constructions of risk.
- Establishing dangers of self-inflicted behaviors (e.g., high caloric diet, smoking, drinking alcohol).
- Establishing dangers of environmental issues (e.g., exposure to air pollution or radiation).
Evidence is collected and warnings are issued.
This suggests that the issue is widespread and something urgently needs to be done to alleviate its impact.
It can be difficult to capture great data on harmful conditions (measurement) since intentionally exposing people to harmful conditions is unethical.
Calculations of risk are often misunderstood since non-scientists have trouble fully understanding the scientific data.
People face risks in their everyday lives, but some issues get more attention than others.

Experts are expected to be impartial judges, but this isn’t always the case.
Examples:
- An expert who is also an advocate may try to promote their claims.
- Funding may create a conflict of interest (e.g., research findings, issuing prescriptions).
- A specific discipline or political ideology can influence how an issue is viewed.

People who run government agencies are influential.
- They have the power to:
  - Collect, analyze, and disseminate data.
  - Administer regulations.
  - Allocate funding through grants.
Agencies compete with one another over ownership of troubling conditions (ownership = resources).

Many claimsmaking campaigns feature partnerships between activists and experts.
- Activists can help filter and deliver scientific jargon.
- Experts have the access and prestige to help claims get heard.
The success of claims largely depends on how they are filtered through the lens of the media.

Experts possess specialized knowledge, training, equipment, and vocabulary.
Nonexperts may adopt some of the experts' vocabulary to make their claims seem more authoritative.
Claims incorporate expert perspectives.