PSYC 248 Exam 2 Study GuideLearning - Chapter 5TermsNonsense
Learning - Chapter 5 Terms
Total Time Hypothesis
States that the amount learned is directly related to the time spent studying.
Learning is linearly related to the amount of study conducted.
Deliberate Practice
Involves focused engagement in activities aimed at improving specific performance facets.
Requires immediate feedback, opportunities for incremental improvements, and problem-solving.
Example: Musicians rehearse difficult pieces repeatedly to enhance their performance.
Distributed Practice
Involves studying with intervals between sessions.
Found to improve memory retention more effectively than massed practice.
Consistently shows better results in both lab and workplace settings.
Most effective sessions last 10-20% of the retention interval.
Enhances retention due to interaction with the testing effect.
Leads to faster improvement and enduring retention, despite requiring longer absolute time.
Massed Practice
Involves studying with little to no breaks between sessions.
Deficient Processing Hypothesis
Suggests that attention decreases for recently encountered information due to insufficient processing.
Spacing or distributed practice may enhance attentional engagement by allowing more time for information encoding.
Pros include substantial empirical research support; however, direct manipulations of attention to massed items lack support.
Encoding Variability
Proposes that encoding an item in diverse environments enhances memory success.
Mathematical models can predict outcomes.
Not strongly supported by empirical evidence and conflicts with other memory theories.
Reminding
Generates stronger memory retrieval for spaced (rather than massed) items due to increased effort during retrieval.
Mathematical models correlate well with data, but more research is needed.
Testing Effect
Indicates that devoting time to retrieving information enhances long-term memory.
Effective across various materials and test formats.
Test-enhanced Learning
Indicates greater learning occurs when study follows retrieval practice.
Delayed feedback results in better performance on final tests.
Consolidation
Describes a time-dependent process where new traces become integrated into memory, aiding long-term retention.
Implicit Memory Tests
Stem Completion: Tests retention by providing initial letters (e.g., Ele___ for elephant).
Word Fragment Completion Tests: Assesses memory through missing letters (e.g., c_o_e_ for closet).
Encoding Variability Hypothesis
Similar to encoding variability but emphasizes distinct environments aiding memory.
Spacing (distributed)= separating words in 4 boxes, most common words in different boxes
No spacing (massed)= 1 box, all 3 cat in box
Expanding Retrieval Practice
Involves progressively increasing intervals for recalling items to enhance learning.
New items are tested shortly after introduction; intervals extend as retention improves.
Dual-Coding Hypothesis
Suggests items easily visualized are better encoded as images and words.
Depth of Processing
Proposes that deeper processing leads to improved episodic memory.
Example: Understanding vocabulary in context enhances retention.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
States retention is optimal when encoding and retrieval modes align.
Example: Practicing multiple-choice questions for a multiple-choice test.
Incidental Learning
Learning without the intention of assessment, such as skills improving through play.
Intentional Learning
Involves purposeful studying with awareness of forthcoming assessments.
Rote/Maintenance Rehearsal
Involves simple repetition of information (e.g., memorizing a phone number).
Elaborative Rehearsal
Involves adding meaning to items while rehearsing (e.g., creating stories about words).
Encoding
The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory through associations.
Mere Exposure Effect
Indicates increased liking with mere exposure to a stimulus.
Cryptomnesia
Unconsciously recalling previously encountered information when creating something new.
Schema
Structured long-term knowledge helps in encoding and may lead to false memories.
Retrieval - Chapter 8 Terms
Retrieval
The process of accessing information in long-term memory.
Cues
Information pieces that prompt memory retrieval (e.g., smells, sounds).
Target Memory
The specific memory sought during retrieval.
Association
The connections formed between memories for easier retrieval.
Spreading Activation
Activation spreads to related concepts, enhancing retrieval likelihood.
Encoding Specificity Principle
States retrieval success is higher when conditions at recall match those at encoding.
Retrieval Mode
Cognitive readiness that orients an individual towards engaging in retrieval.
Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
Encourage participants to consciously recall past events through instructions.
Implicit Memory Tests
Evaluates memory without prompting the participant to recall actively.
Source Monitoring
Examining contextual origins of memories to identify their sources.
Context-Dependent Memory
Improved recall when retrieval context matches learning context.
State-Dependent Memory
Memory retrieval is enhanced by the individual's physical or emotional state.
Mood-Dependent Memory
The emotional state at retrieval affects recall success.
Recall and Recognition Memory
Examines differences in performance during free, cued recall versus recognition tests.
Signal Detection Theory
Focuses on decision-making in recognition tasks, assessing hits and misses.
Schema & Reconstructive Memory
Active, inferential retrieval processes where memories fill in gaps based on past experiences.
Tip-of-the-Tongue State
A scenario where a known piece of information cannot be retrieved.
Incidental Forgetting - Chapter 9 Terms
Incidental Forgetting
Forgetting occurs without intent.
Motivated Forgetting
Engaging in efforts to diminish memory accessibility deliberately.
Forgetting Curve/Retention Function
Ebbinghaus's study illustrating rapid early forgetting followed by slower retention loss.
Accessibility vs. Availability
Accessibility: Ability to retrieve a stored memory.
Availability: Whether a memory item is present in storage.
Interference
Trace Decay: Gradual weakening of memories over time.
Retroactive Interference: New memories hinder recall of older memories.
Proactive Interference: Old memories complicate recall of new information.
Retrieval-Induced Forgetting
Retrieval of some memories inhibits the recall of related items.
Inhibition in Retrieval-Induced Forgetting
Suppressing related memories during focused recall efforts.
Retrieval Practice Paradigm
Studies retrieval-induced forgetting within a controlled framework.
Motivated/Intentional Forgetting - Chapter 10 Terms
Directed Forgetting
Instruction to forget specific information followed by later testing.
Item-Method Directed Forgetting
Participants are instructed to forget targeted items in a list.
List-Method Directed Forgetting
Participants are instructed to forget an entire list of items.
Selective Rehearsal
Items received a "remember" instruction are deeply encoded.
Encoding Suppression
Disallowing ongoing recollection of items receiving a "forget" instruction.
Retrieval Inhibition Hypothesis
Suggests that retrieval of certain items becomes increasingly difficult over time.
Context Shift Hypothesis
Change in context while encoding shifts focus from one set of items to another.
Cognitive Control
Managing thoughts to reduce distractions from unwanted memories.
Think/No Think Paradigm
Involves memorizing cues with the option to recall or suppress retrieval.
Spontaneous Recovery
Reinstatement of an extinct behavior after rest.
Hypermnesia
Memory improvement with repeated testing over time.
Reminiscence
Recollection of previously unrecallable items without relearning effort.
Cue Reinstatement
Return to a significant event's location triggers vivid memory via environmental cues.