(PSYC 2301) Chapter 1 - What Is Psychology?

psychology = sci study of behavior & mental processes

• sci - use of systematic methods to observe the natural world and to draw conclusions

  • describe,predict,explain behavior then use sci methods to examine interventions for bad behaviors

    • describe - how many?

    • predict - aft examining characteristics of the individuals in circumstance; qualities of behavior (happy, sad, etc.)

    • explain - why?

• Behavior - everything we do that can be directly observed (surface-level; actions; words used; etc.)

• Mental processes- the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly (memory also)

psychologists research what possibilities could contribute to a behavior and use said research as the basis of conclusions, then examine what research and to what extent their conclusions apply to the behavior or case at hand. Then, they reexamine all factors/possibilitiies.

Core of scientific approach: critical thinking, skepticism, objectivity, and curiosity. Critical thinking - the process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence

• asking ourselves how we know something; questioning and testing what oth say is facts; research to see if the facts line up w/ idea

  • reduces the chance that conclusions are made solely on personal beliefs, opinions, and/or emotions

• skepticism- characterizes scientists, challenge facts. distinction btw sci and pseudosci (info that is couched in scientific terminology but is not supported by sound scientific research [avec astrology as a pseudosci])

• objective- being open to evidence. sci apply the empirical method. to see things as they really are, not as we would like them to be; waiting to see the evidence rather than going w/ hunches

  • empirical method - gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning

• curious - notice things in the world and want to ask?s (what? why?)

Clinical psychologists specialize in studying and treating psychological disorders

Sigmund Freud. believed behav caused by “dark, unpleasant, unconcoius impulses clamoring for expression” based this conclusion off of his patients. “I have found little that is ‘good’ about human beings on the whole. In my experience most of them are trash.” - Freud [1918] 1963

• Freudian slip - someone makes and error in speech that seems to be full of unintentional meaning

an individual’s best moments may emerge from very difficult situations; ie, forgiveness (the act if letting go of our anger and resentment toward someone who has harmed us. This causes us to cease seeking revenge or avoiding the person who did us hard & we might even wish that person well)

• positive psychology - a branch of psychology that emphasizes human strengths. centering on topics: hope, optimism, happiness, and gratitude. One goals of it is to balance the more negative side of psychology

psy wants answers to “How do we lear?” “What is memory?” “whydoes one person grow and flourish with another struggles?”

• philosophy - the rational explanation of the underlying principles of being and knowledge

• Soc, Plato, Arist. etc thought & behavior, linked btw the mind and the body

• rene descartes, the mind and body r separate, focused only on the mind

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), Germ, created psych. in Dec 1879 when he attempted to determine the measurement of mental processes

• focused on the basics/foundations of mental processes. Approach: structuralism - Wundt’s approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes; so called because of its focus on identifying the structures of the human mind. it emphasizes the components of the mind, what it is (asking: What?)

  • introspection - a process of looking inside our own minds by focusing on our own thoughts. it relies solely on a person’s conscious reflection; looking inside the mind for structure

  • the brain: occipital lobe=images; temporal lobe=feelings; frontal lobe=thoughts

    

    • amygdala=fear,

William James (1842-1910), Amer.

• the key ? to psychology is what the mind is for (its purposes/functions) [not what the mind is {its structures}]. functionalism - James’s approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual’s adaptation to the environment. Its focused on human interactions externally and the purpose of thoughts, why does it do it. (asking: Why?)

• James believed the mind was flexible, adaptive and changes in response to continuous flow of info; “the stream of consciousness.”

Charles Darwin, published “On the Origin of Species (1979),” w/ natural selection as the core of his theory. natural selection - Darwin’s principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are better adapted to their environment will survive and produce more offspring. It suggests that the environment determines the survivors/competitors.

7 dif approaches representing the intellectual background of psych sci: bio, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, evolutionary, and sociocultural

• biological approach - an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. the cause and effect of the brain on the body.

  • neuroscience - the scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system, emphasizing that the brain and nervous system are central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion. it has contributed to physiological psychology the most.

• behavioral approach - an approach to psychology focusing on the scientific study of observable behavioral responded and their environmental determinants. It doesn’t focus on thoughts and feelings. People who use this approach are behaviorists.

  • John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. Skinner’s book asked for focus on the actions and behaviors of people, not their unseen thoughts, feelings, or goals. This specification isn’t adopted by all behaviorists, who accept cognition - thought processes.

• psychodynamic approach - an approach to psychology focusing on unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as drive for sex) and society’s demands, and early childhood family experiences. Ppl who use this approach often believe that impulses toward aggression and sex influc the way ppl think, feel, behave

  • Sigmund Freud founded the psychdyn appch; theory: early reltnshps w/ parents shape personality, forming the basis for psychoanalysis (therapy) - involves an analyst’s unlocking a person’s unconscious conflicts by talking w/ the person about childhood memories, dreams, thoughts, and feelings. theories of today more involve cultural and social exp on behavior

• humanistic approach - an approach to psychology focusing on a person’s positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one’s destiny. Humanistic psycholgsts believe that ppl have the ability to control their lives and are not controlled by the environment; ppl can choose to live by higher human values, like altruism (- unselfish concern for other people’s well-being) and free will. research involving motivation, emotion, health, and personality psychology contain humanistic aspects.

• cognitive approach - an approach to psychology focusing on the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems. The mind resides inside the brain, the mind processes give us the ability to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, and be creative. Information processing- the ways that the human mind interpreats incoming information, weighs it, stores it, and applies it to decision making. how do we solve math probs? why remember some short-term and some long-term? mind=active and aware, puzzle-solving syst

• evolutionary approach - an approach to psychology focusing on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors. looks for behavioral clues in primates to better approach human behavior. has influenced thinking in a number of sci disciplines.

  • David Buss, evolution shapes our mind as much as it does our bodies: decision making, level of aggression, fear, and mating patterns. Adaptaion is tracable to early adaptation of humans. spent career exploring evol theory applications.

  • Critics: innacurately explains social roles btw men and women, not accounting for cultural diversity or exp

• sociocultural approach - an approach to psychology focusing on the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior. Understanding a person’s behavior includes the cultural context of the behavior; looking at ppl from the same culture to find similar behaviors/influences. human interaction btw more economically indep ppl and eco dep ppl

practitioners - individuals primarily engaged in helping others (spending most of their time in clinical practice, seeing clients and offering them guidance as they work through problems).

evidence-based practice - psychologists who ise therapeutic tools whose effectiveness is supported by empirical research.

clinical psychologist v psychiatrist

• clinical psychologist - has doctoral degree in psych (4-5 years graduate work + 1 yr internship in mental health facility.); cannot prescribe drugs

• psychiatrist - medical degree, but specializes in abnormal behavior and psychotherapy; can prescribe drugs

56 divisions of specialization. D1: Society for General Psychology, seeking to provide a coherent integration of the sci of pysch; D2: Society for the Teaching of Psychology, dedicated to planning effective learning strats for students

• physiological psychology - interested in the physical processes that underlie mental operations such as thinking and memory. They may use animals as models to examine the development of the nervous syst

• behavioral neuroscience - focuses on biological processes, especially the brain’s role in behavior. Tranking how brain processes reflect behavior

• sensation and perception - focuses on the physical systems and psychological processes that allow us to experience the world.

• learning - the intricate process by which behavior changes in response to changing circumstances. many researchers use animals for studying learning. Addressed from behavioral and cognitive perspectives.

• cognitive psychology - the broad name given to the field of psychology that examines attention, consciousness, information processing, and memory. Skills and abilities such as problem solving, decision making, expertise, and intelligence interest cog sci, sometimes called experimental psychologists.

• developmental psychology - concerned with how people become who they are, crom conception to death. Concentrating on the biological and environmental factors that contribute to human development; spanning biological, cognitive, and social areas.

• motivation and emotion - two important aspects of experience.

  • Motivation: How do individuals persevere? How do rewards affect the experience of motivation?

  • Emotion: including the physiological and brain processes that underlie emotional exp, emo expression in health, and the possibility that emo are universal.

• psychology of women - considering the psychological, social, and cultural influences on women’s development and behavior.

• gender - the way our biological sex influences our ideas about ourselves as men and women

• personality psychology - considers personality, consisting of the relatively enduring characteristics of individuals. Traits, goals, motives, genetics, personality development, and well-being.

• social psychology - people’s interactions with one another, relationships, social perceptions, social cognition, and attitudes. The influence of groups in our thinking and behavior and in the ways that the groups to which we belong influence our attitudes; understanding and working to reduce racial prejudice, determining whether two heads are really better than one, and exploring how the presence of others influences performance.

• industrial and organizational psychology (I-O psychology) - centering on workplace environments -- both workers and organizations that employ them.

  • industrial psychology (personnel psychology) - main concerns are personnel matters and human resource management.

  • Organizational psychology - examines the social influences in organizations, as well as organizational leadership.

• Clinical and counseling psychology - the most widely practiced specialization in psychology; diagnosing and treating people with psychological problems.

  • Counceling psych occasionally work w/ ppl to help solve practical probs in life

  • Clinical psychs use psychopathology - the scientific study of psychological disorders and the development of diagnostic categories and treatments for those disorders.

• Health psychology - a multidimensional approach to human health that emphasizes psychological factors, lifestyle, and the nature of the healthcare delivery system. Roles of stress and coping. May work in physical/mental health areas, sometimes providing clinical services.

• community psychology - concentrating on improvement of the quality of relationships among individuals, their community, and society at large. Community psychs are practicioner sci who provide accessible care for ppl w/ psych probs. Community-based mental health centers deliver help amongst ppl in need. Create communities that better support their residents via nees, providing services, and teaching ppl how to access resources that are already available; prevention of mental illness by intervening in high-risk groups w/ appropriate services and resources.

• school and educational psychology - focuses children’s learning and adjustment in school. Testing children, make recommendations about educational placement, and collaborate on educational planning teams; working at colleges and universities, teach classes, and research on teaching and learning.

• environmental psychology - the study of the interactions between people and their physical environment. Exploring the effects of physical settings in most maj areas of psych: perception, cognition, learning, development, abnormal behavior, and social relations. dif arrangement of buildings & rooms influence beh, what strats could b used to reduce human beh that harms the environment.

• forensic psychology - the field of psychology that applies psychological concepts to the legal system. hired by legal teams for input on trial aspects (like jury selection), or testify as experts in trials.

• sport psychology - applies psychology’s principles to improving sport performance and enjoying sport participation. Reletively new.

• Cross-cultural psychology - the study of cultural influences on behavior, thought, and emotion. Comparing the nature of psych processes in dif cultures w/ specific focus on if they are universal or culture specific.

health beh is a subset of beh that are relevant to physical health: eating well, exercising, not smoking, performing testicular and breast self-exams, and getting enough sleep.

• physical health improves cognitive abilities.