Christian Moral Action: The Life and Theology of Dietrich Bonhoeffer
Early Life, Formation, and International Influence
Dietrich Bonhoeffer was born in Germany in , beginning his life in an environment described as idyllic. This early peace was abruptly terminated by the onset of World War I. The death of his brother in the war served as a profound catalyst, inspiring him to pursue the study of theology, a decision that notably lacked support from his parents. In , Bonhoeffer traveled to New York, America. During this period, his interactions with Black Churches were transformative; they led him to the realization that the church must form relationships across racial and geographical boundaries, rejecting isolationism. Upon returning to university life as a lecturer, Bonhoeffer began developing a radical form of Christianity. He argued that the state and church should remain separate entities, with the church playing an active role in fighting for justice.
Duty to God and the State
Bonhoeffer initially engaged with the prevailing view that Christians should obey the state to maintain order against humans' inherent sinful tendencies. This position is traditionally supported by scripture, specifically Mark , which states: "Give to emperor the things that are the emperors, and to God the things that are God's," and Romans , which asserts: "There is no authority except that which God has established." However, Bonhoeffer posited that obedience to God's will must take precedence. While the state is meant to keep order, if it gains excessive power and fails to acknowledge its subordination to God, Christians have a moral duty to intervene. The Church must not become an arm of the state but should instead serve as a check on its power.
Leadership and Resistance to Nazism
Bonhoeffer's concept of leadership was grounded in the community; true leaders focus themselves within and through society. He contrasted this with the situation in Germany under Hitler, whom he described as a leader divorced from society. When Hitler rose to power in , Bonhoeffer immediately used a radio broadcast to openly oppose his rule. He became a founding member of the Confessing Church, an organization created to oppose the German Evangelical (Nazi) churches. Bonhoeffer also joined the underground resistance known as the Widerstand. Although he had the opportunity to hide in America, he chose to return to Germany, believing that pacifism did not align with the realities of a world lacking peace and justice. He actively fought back by joining the Counterintelligence section of the Army, using his position to support Jewish people and assist them in escaping the country.
Ethical Action and the Plot to Kill Hitler
Bonhoeffer believed the will of God is made apparent in the moment of action as an act of faith. He rejected the idea of autonomy—specifically love as a purely human guiding principle—as the sole basis for ethics. In his view, making morality purely human removes God's role. Instead, one can only determine how to act through prayer, reflection on the Bible, and the study of Jesus' life. This theological framework led him to justify tyrannicide (the killing of Hitler). He argued this was not justified by human reason or standard ethical terms, but as a bold action of faith. He addressed the danger of this logic by stating that for an act to be justified by God's will, one must set aside all human ethics and personal desires—a standard he claimed the Nazis, who used the slogan "God on our side," failed to meet. Bonhoeffer was arrested in , spent months in prison, and was moved to a concentration camp after the plot to kill Hitler failed. He was executed by hanging in .
The Role of the Church and Faith in a Secular World
In discussing the role of the church, secularists often argue the church is more corruptible than the state due to a lack of democracy, crediting the "long peace" after World War II to secular liberal democracy rather than religious influence. Conversely, Stanley Hauerwas defends Bonhoeffer, suggesting that liberal secular Western societies have undermined theological truths, creating a void of purpose that leaves societies vulnerable to totalitarian powers. Bonhoeffer addressed this through the concept of "Religionless Christianity." Influenced by Nietzsche’s claim that "God is dead, and we killed him," Bonhoeffer recognized a Western void or spiritual vacuum. However, while Nietzsche thought Christianity should be discarded entirely to find purpose, Bonhoeffer argued for a Christianity stripped of the baggage of the past or current ideological beliefs, focusing purely on the relationship with God. He spoke against "rusty swords," referring to outworn ethical attitudes that are no longer relevant.
The Cost of Discipleship and Grace
Bonhoeffer distinguished between "Cheap Grace" and "Costly Grace." He defined Cheap Grace as "grace without discipleship, grace without the cross, grace without Jesus Christ." It involves performing sacraments without changing one's life or living a disciplined existence. In contrast, Costly Grace is "costly because it costs a man his life, and grace because it gives a man the only true life." This requires a literal change in life and decisions to follow Christ. Using the example of Martha and Mary from Luke , Bonhoeffer argued that many Christians are like Martha, too focused on worldly tasks, rather than like Mary, who focused on her relationship with Jesus. Discipleship requires being the "salt" and "light" of the community—adding flavor and serving as an example. It also entails suffering, poverty, and persecution, as discipleship (following Jesus) is more important than mere religion.
Finkenwalde and the Confessing Church
The Confessing Church was established in as a response to the German Evangelical Church's adoption of the "Arian Paragraph," which banned priests not of Aryan descent. Bonhoeffer signed the Barmen Declaration, initiated by Karl Barth, which stated that a Christian's primary duty is to Christ, rejecting any teachings not revealed in Him. Bonhoeffer established a seminary at Finkenwalde to train priests for the Confessing Church, emphasizing discipline through a quasi-monastic lifestyle and physical activities like long bike rides. His theological approach, shared with Barth, was neo-orthodox: the Bible is not the perfect word of God itself, but the encounter with Jesus through reflection on and discussion of the text becomes the word of God. Finkenwalde fostered a "community for others," viewing the church not as a place for the righteous, but for the forgiven, emphasizing solidarity with all people.
Questions & Discussion
Is Bonhoeffer's theology still relevant today? Proponents argue that Western society's focus on material self-benefit leads to unhappiness, and Bonhoeffer’s call to abandon self-interest for solidarity with the oppressed remains vital. His "no rusty swords" approach encourages the church to adapt to modern values. Critics, however, argue the church should not be involved in politics and that his level of spiritual discipline is unrealistic for modern people.
Is it possible to always know God's will? Some believe that communal reflection on the Bible, as practiced at Finkenwalde, reduces the risk of distorting God's meaning. Others argue that if we cannot definitively know God's will, Bonhoeffer’s theology is dangerous, as it might encourage individuals with distorted views to commit acts of violence under the guise of faith.
Should Christians practice civil disobedience? Arguments in favor cite the prophets speaking against corrupt rulers and Jesus challenging religious authorities. Arguments against point to Paul's writings on obeying established authority and the dangers of extremism in a modern context. Some suggest civil disobedience should be reserved only for extreme circumstances, such as a totalitarian state.
Does Bonhoeffer put too much emphasis on suffering? Critics suggest his focus on the crucifixion misses the joy of the resurrection and may be inapplicable to peaceful societies. Supporters argue that suffering is a universal human experience and that emphasizing solidarity—taking up one's cross—is essential for helping others and engaging with Jesus on all levels.