heimler review

APUSH Unit 5: 1844-1877 Manifest Destiny

Overview of Westward Expansion

• Late 18th to early 19th century, Americans found the idea of westward expansion attractive.

• Expansion progressed west beyond the Atlantic coast into:
    - Ohio River Valley
    - Territories acquired through the Louisiana Purchase

Manifest Destiny Definition and Origin

• In July 1845, John L. O'Sullivan coined the term "Manifest Destiny" to express the belief that it was America’s God-given right to expand from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.   

Practical Reasons Behind Manifest Destiny

• Access to Resources:
    - Needed access to mineral and natural resources, including:
      - Discovery of gold in California in 1848 led to the California Gold Rush.
      - Subsequent gold findings in Colorado, the Dakotas, and Nevada attracted even more migration west.

• Economic Opportunities:
    - The Preemption Acts of the 1830s and 1840s allowed access to vast tracts of land for purchase and homesteading.     - Migration was primarily made by the middle class, as transportation expenses required financial means.

• Religious Refuge:
    - Mormons faced persecution in the Midwest, chiefly over polygamy, leading them to settle in the Utah territory.

James K. Polk's Role

• James K. Polk assumed presidency in 1844 and was a strong advocate for Manifest Destiny.   - He aimed to incorporate Texas and Oregon into the Union.

Texas: Background and Revolution

• American settlers began entering Texas in the 1820s, even though it was still Mexican territory.   - By 1830, American immigrants outnumbered Mexicans by about three to one.

• Settlers largely comprised white, Protestant, pro-slavery individuals, but the Mexican government imposed two critical requirements:
    - Conversion to Roman Catholicism.
    - Slavery prohibition.

• U.S. settlers largely ignored these laws, leading Mexico to enforce restrictions on immigration, yet American migrants kept arriving.

Texas Revolution

• In 1834, reforms under a new Mexican dictator aggravated tensions with U.S. settlers.

• Texas declared independence in 1836 under Sam Houston's leadership, following a series of conflicts including:   - A Mexican victory at the Alamo where all American defenders were killed.
    - The Battle of San Jacinto where Houston’s forces captured the Mexican general, leading to the Treaty of Independence.

• Even with independence, Mexico refused to recognize Texas's sovereignty.

• The question of admitting Texas into the U.S. became contentious:   - Presidents Jackson and Van Buren avoided annexation due to fears of war with Mexico.
     - Tyler attempted annexation, but the Senate denied it.

Oregon Territory Dispute

• The U.S. and Britain claimed the Oregon Territory:   - U.S. claims relied on settler presence (missionaries and farmers).
    - British interests focused on profitable fur trading.

• The Oregon Treaty of 1846 resolved this by setting the border at the 49th parallel.

The Mexican-American War

• The annexation of Texas risked war with Mexico due to territorial disputes.

• Polk’s predecessor, Tyler, began the process of annexing Texas paired with Polk’s presidency, which catered to the public support for westward expansion.

• Polk dispatched John Slidell to negotiate with Mexico, seeking to purchase New Mexico and California; however, Mexico refused.

• A dispute over the southern border led Polk to order military action:   - Troops led by General Zachary Taylor crossed the Nueces River to Rio Grande, becoming embroiled in conflict.   - Initial skirmishes resulted in the deaths of 11 Americans, which outraged Polk and led to Congress declaring war on May 13, 1846.

War and Its Aftermath

• American forces, under General Winfield Scott, captured Mexico City, leading to negotiations.

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) marked the war's end:   - Established the Rio Grande as Texas's southern border.   - Included the Mexican Cession, where Mexico ceded California and New Mexico for $15 million.

• The Gadsden Purchase (1853) added land costing $10 million, furthering U.S. territorial gains, causing a significant loss of Mexican territory (approx. half).

Slavery and Territorial Expansion

• David Wilmot proposed the Wilmot Proviso in 1846, aiming to prevent slavery in territories acquired from Mexico; despite being voted down, it highlighted slavery tensions.

• Free soil ideals promoted acquiring land for homesteaders to settle without competition from the slave system (more economic than moral).

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo offered U.S. citizenship to Mexican residents but ignored Native Americans.

Compromise of 1850

• Conflict over slavery became increasingly contentious:   - South: argued slavery was a constitutional right established by the Missouri Compromise (line 36-30).   - Free Soil Movement sought to limit slavery's expansion to ensure jobs for free laborers.

• Abolitionists, though a minority, influenced Northern perspectives with impactful literature and public speaking.

Key Events and Strategies

• The Compromise of 1850, proposed by Henry Clay, included:
    - Division of the Mexican Cession into Utah and New Mexico territories, allowing popular sovereignty over slavery.
    - California was admitted as a free state.
    - Ban on the slave trade in Washington, D.C.   - Implementation of stricter Fugitive Slave Laws.

Sectional Conflicts

Immigration and Cultural Enclaves

• Significant immigration from Germany and Ireland brought cultural enclaves where customs persisted:   - Irish immigrants faced severe discrimination due to their Catholic faith; many settled in impoverished areas.   - German immigrants often sought land in the Midwest for farming.

• Nativism arose, reflecting a desire to protect native-born interests against immigrants, manifesting in anti-Catholic sentiments.   - The Know-Nothing political party emerged in opposition to immigration policies.

Economic Differences

• Northern economy relied on free wage labor in factories, causing rapid population growth.

• Southern economy based on enslaved labor in agriculture, leading to tensions over new slave states as threats to free wage competition.

• The Free Soil Movement advocated for the Wilmot Proviso, emphasizing threats to slavery in new territories.   

Abolitionist Movement

• Abolitionists were influential despite numerical minority due to their methods:   - Produced notable publications like "The Liberator" (William Lloyd Garrison) and "Uncle Tom’s Cabin" (Harriet Beecher Stowe).   - Promoted the Underground Railroad, assisting slaves to reach freedom.

John Brown and Escalating Tension

• John Brown’s raid at Harpers Ferry aimed to incite a slave rebellion but resulted in failure and his execution, illustrating Northern intent as perceived by the South.   

Vulnerability of Compromise

• Continuous acquisition of land exacerbated slavery debates.

• Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) divided parts of Louisiana Purchase, permitting popular sovereignty on slavery, angering Northerners for violating the Missouri Compromise, leading to violence in Kansas termed "Bleeding Kansas."

Dred Scott Decision and Political Division

• The Dred Scott case (1857):
    - Dred Scott, an enslaved man, sued for freedom after residing in a free state but was denied on the basis that he was not a citizen.   - Established that Congress could not deprive slave owners of their property, intensifying sectional tensions.

• The Whig Party fractured into factions over slavery, while the Republican Party emerged focused on contesting slavery's expansion without advocating for immediate abolition.

Election of 1860 and Secession

• The election featured divided Democrats and victorious Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln on a free soil platform; he did not seek abolition where slavery existed but aimed to prevent its spread.

• Lincoln garnered 40% of the popular vote but won decisively in the Electoral College (60%).

• Following his election, Southern states believed their power in the Union would diminish.

Southern Secession

• Beginning with South Carolina in December 1860, several states seceded from the Union, forming the Confederate States of America.

• Debates lingered over whether secession was driven by slavery or states' rights, with individual state articles of secession often citing slavery explicitly.

• Jefferson Davis, the Confederacy's president, evaded discussing slavery in his inaugural speech, whereas Alexander Stephens’s speech overtly justified it.

The Civil War: Initial Military Conflict

Advantages

• North:   - Larger population, better resourced economy with a significant industrial sector, established government.

• South:   - Greater military experience and tactical leadership but needed foreign support for economic sustainability.

Key Early Events

• The Civil War began with the Battle of Fort Sumter in April 1861, and the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861 showcased the unexpected difficulty of war.

• The Union’s Anaconda Plan aimed to suffocate the Southern economy through blockades and control of Mississippi River.

• The Confederacy relied on cotton diplomacy to win foreign support.

Turning Points and Strategies

Union Leadership

• Ulysses S. Grant's relentless tactics in pushing the Confederacy back paved the way for future victories.

• Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation (1863) shifted war objectives toward the eradication of slavery while aiming to prevent foreign aid to the Confederacy.

Key Victories

• The Union seized control in strategic battles, such as Vicksburg, enabling them to split the Confederacy in two.

• General Sherman’s March to the Sea devastated Southern cities and infrastructure, severely undermining Confederate resistance.

Surrender and Government Policies

• Final surrender by General Lee to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865.

• Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation highlighted the moral urgency of ending slavery as a core war aim.

• Lincoln's Gettysburg Address reiterated the commitment to liberty and unity.

Reconstruction Era

Lincoln’s Reconstruction Plan

• Advocated for leniency, proposing that states could rejoin the Union after 10% of antebellum voters pledged loyalty.

• Lincoln's assassination by John Wilkes Booth interrupted these efforts, passing Reconstruction to Andrew Johnson.

• Johnson’s policies returned power to former Confederates, promoting Black Codes that restricted Black rights.

Radical Republicans' Reaction

• Radical Republicans sought harsher measures and enforced civil rights through the Freedmen's Bureau and the Civil Rights Act of 1866.

• The 14th Amendment established citizenship and equal protection under the law.

• Congressional Reconstruction Acts restructured Southern governance through military oversight.

End of Reconstruction and Its Legacy

Political Developments

• Johnson's impeachment reflected ongoing tensions and took place after his breaches of new policies, but he was not convicted.

• The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments aimed to secure rights for freedmen but instigated divisions in the women's suffrage movement.

Ongoing Challenges

• Post-war Southern society largely replicated pre-Civil War status quo, with sharecropping becoming prevalent and reinforcing white supremacy principles.

• Organizations such as the KKK emerged to intimidate and suppress Black rights.

Conclusion of Reconstruction

• The Compromise of 1877 culminated in the withdrawal of federal troops, effectively ending Reconstruction and permitting Southern Democrats to regain control over state governments, leading to the establishment of Jim Crow laws and segregation policies.