Integrated Science Exam Review Notes

Unit 4: Waves

Lesson 1: Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

• Wave: Disturbance that transfers energy through oscillations in a medium.

• Medium: Material through which a wave travels.

• Vacuum: Space with no matter.

• Energy Transfer: Energy moves via waves.

• Longitudinal Waves: Particles vibrate parallel to energy transfer direction (compressions & rarefactions).

• Transverse Waves: Particles vibrate perpendicular to energy transfer direction (peaks & troughs).

• Peak: Highest point of a transverse wave.

• Trough: Lowest point of a transverse wave.

• Compression: Region in a longitudinal wave where particles are closest.

• Rarefaction: Region in a longitudinal wave where particles are spread apart.

• Oscillation: Repeated back-and-forth movement.

• Vibrations: Rapid back-and-forth movements creating waves.

Transverse Waves

• Points vibrate perpendicular to energy transfer.

• Include peaks and troughs.

• Energy transfer matches wave motion.

• Transfer energy, not particles.

• EM waves can move in a vacuum.

• Examples: Ripples, tsunamis, EM waves.

Longitudinal Waves

• Points vibrate parallel to energy transfer.

• Include compressions and rarefactions.

• Energy transfer matches wave motion.

• Transfer energy, not particles.

• Move in solids, liquids, gases.

• Cannot move in a vacuum.

Lesson 2: Wave Properties

• Mechanical Waves: Need a medium.

• Electromagnetic Waves: Oscillations in electric/magnetic fields; travel through vacuum or medium.

• Amplitude: Distance from rest to peak/trough (m).

• Wavelength (λ): Distance from a point on a wave to the same point on the next wave (m).

• Equilibrium: Undisturbed position.

• Frequency (f): Waves per second (Hz).

• Period (T): Time for one wave (s).

Longitudinal Wave Properties

• Mechanical waves.

• Compressions: points close.

• Rarefactions: points spaced.

• Wavelength (λ): center of compression to the next (m).

Transverse Wave Properties

• Electromagnetic waves.

• Peak/Crest: highest point.

• Trough: lowest point.

• Amplitude (A): distance from rest to peak/trough (m); greater amplitude = greater energy.

• Wavelength: distance from one point to the next point, λ (m).

• Equilibrium: undisturbed position.

Frequency Vs. Period

Frequency (f):

• Definition: Waves per second.

• Unit: Hertz (Hz).

• Formula: $f = \frac{1}{T}$

• Significance: Higher frequency = higher energy.

Period (T):

• Definition: Time for one wave.

• Unit: Seconds (s).

• Formula: $T = \frac{1}{f}$

• Significance: Longer period = lower frequency.

Lesson 3: Wave Speed

• Wave Speed (ν): Distance traveled per second (m/s).

• Frequency (f): Waves per second (Hz).

• Wavelength (λ): Distance between points on a wave (m).

• Wave Equation: $v = f \times λ$

Lesson 4: Reflection of Light

• Incident Ray: Incoming light ray.

• Reflected Ray: Light ray bouncing off.

• Normal Line: Line perpendicular to the surface.

• Angle of Incidence (i): Angle between incident ray and normal.

• Angle of Reflection (r): Angle between reflected ray and normal.

• Law of Reflection: Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.

Lesson 5: Refraction of Light

• Refraction: Bending of light through different densities.

• Medium: Substance light travels through.

• Emergent Ray: Light ray exiting the medium.

• Refracted Ray: Ray that changed direction.

• Real Depth: Actual depth.

• Apparent Depth: Perceived depth.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Electromagnetic Spectrum: Complete range of radiation.

• Radio Waves: Communication.

• Microwaves: Cooking/communication.

• Infrared Waves: Remote controls/night vision.

• Visible Light: Wavelengths visible to the eye.

• Ultraviolet Waves (UV): Sterilization, can cause sunburn.

• X-rays: Medical imaging.

• Gamma Rays: Cancer treatment/sterilization.

• Energy: Varies.

Electromagnetic Spectrum Properties

• Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional.

Types of Waves on the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Lesson 6: Sound Waves

• Sound: Energy from vibrations.

• Vibration: Quick movement creating sound.

• Medium: Material sound travels through.

• Amplitude: Affects loudness.

• Pitch: High or low sounds based on frequency.

• Decibels (dB): Unit measuring loudness.

• Speed of Sound: How fast sound moves.

• Echo: Sound bouncing back.

• Reverberation: Sound bouncing around.

• Oscilloscope: Tool showing sound waves.

• Threshold of Hearing: Quietest sound heard (0 dB).

The Speed Of Sound:

• Varies; faster in solids/liquids than gases.

• Increases with temperature.

• Through air: 343 m/s

• Light is faster than sound.

The Pitch, Frequency, And Intensity Of Sound

• Pitch: High/low sound, determined by frequency.

  • High Pitch = High Frequency

  • Low Pitch = Low Frequency

• Intensity: Loudness, measured in dB, determined by amplitude.

  • High Amplitude = High Intensity

  • Low Amplitude = Low Intensity

The Reflection Of Sound

• Sound waves bounce off surfaces, creates echoes.

• Echoes repeat many times = reverberation.

Calculating Sound

• Speed of sound: 343 m/s

• Formulas:

  • Wave speed = Frequency x Wavelength $v = f \times λ$

  • Distance = Wave speed x Time $d = v \times t$

Unit 5: Acids and Bases

Lesson 1: Introduction to Acids and Bases

• Acid: Substance forming hydrogen ions (H⁺) in water.

• Base: Substance forming hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water.

• Strong Acid: Completely dissociates, low pH.

• Weak Acid: Partially dissociates, higher pH.

• Strong Base: Completely dissociates, high pH.

• Weak Base: Partially dissociates, lower pH.

• Hydrogen Ion (H⁺): Positive ion from acid dissolving.

• Hydroxide Ion (OH⁻): Negative ion from base dissolving.

Properties/Characteristics of Acids and Bases

Common Examples of Acids and Bases

Lesson 2: Measuring pH

• pH Scale: Measures acidity/basicity from 0 to 14.

• Indicator: Chemical changing color to determine pH.

• Litmus Paper: Indicates acid (red) or base (blue).

• Universal Indicator: Shows the exact pH value.

• Phenolphthalein Indicator: Colorless in acid, pink in base.

• Digital pH Meter: Electronic device measuring pH.

• Neutral Substance: pH of 7.

• Neutralisation: Reaction producing salt and water.

pH Scale Explained

• pH 0-6: ACID

• pH 7: NEUTRAL

• pH 8-14: BASE

• RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, or LIME: ACID

• GREEN: NEUTRAL

• TURQUOISE, BLUE, VIOLET, or PURPLE: BASE

Method for measuring pH with Litmus paper

• Dip blue litmus paper; if red, acidic.

• Dip red litmus paper; if blue, basic.

• If neither changes, neutral.

Method for measuring pH with Phenolphthalein

• Add drops; if pink, basic.

• If remains colorless, acidic or neutral.

Method for measuring pH with Universal indicator

• Add drops; compare color to pH chart.

Method for measuring pH with Digital pH meter

• Calibrate, rinse electrode, immerse in solution, read pH.

Lesson 3: Reactions Involving Acids

• Acid: Donates H⁺, sour taste, corrosive.

• Metal: Hard, shiny, conducts electricity.

• Hydrogen Gas (H₂): Gas from metal + acid.

• Salt: Product of acid-base or acid-metal reaction.

• Metal Oxide: Reacts with acids to produce salt and water.

• Hydroxide: Reacts with acids to produce salt and water.

• Metal Carbonate: Reacts with acids to produce salt, water, and carbon dioxide.

• Neutralisation Reaction: Acid + base → salt + water.

• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Gas from metal carbonates + acids.

• Limewater: Tests for CO₂; turns milky.

• Bubbling/Fizzing: Indicates gas.

Reactions of Acids with Metals

*General Equation: Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen Gas (H2)

• Example: Zinc + Hydrochloric Acid → Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen Gas (H2) Or $Zn + HCl → ZnCl₂ + H2$

• Naming the Salt: metal's name + anion from acid

Reactions of Acids with Metal Oxides

• General Equation: Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water

• Example: Sulfuric Acid + Copper Oxide → Copper Sulfate + Water Or $H2SO4 + CuO → CuSO4 + H2O$

• Naming the Salt: Metal + anion from acid.

Reactions of Acids with Hydroxides

• General Equation: Acid + Hydroxide → Salt + Water

• Example: Hydrochloric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide → Sodium Chloride + Water Or $HCL + NaOH → NaCl + H2O$

• Naming the Salt: sodium + chloride from hydrochloric acid.

Reactions of Acids with Metal Carbonates

• General Equation: Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

• Example: Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid → Calcium Chloride + Water + Carbon Dioxide Or $CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2$

• Naming the Salt: calcium + chloride from hydrochloric acid.

Unit 6: Sexual Reproduction

Lesson 1: Sexual Reproduction vs Asexual Reproduction

• Sexual Reproduction: Fusion of gametes, genetically different offspring.

• Asexual Reproduction: No gametes, genetically identical offspring.

• Gamete: Sex cell (sperm/egg).

• Zygote: Fertilized egg cell, diploid.

• Haploid: Cell with half the chromosomes.

• Diploid: Cell with the full set of chromosomes.

Comparison of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Advantages and Disadvantages Of Each Type Of Reproduction

Lesson 2: Gametes

• Gametes: Reproductive cells (sperm and egg).

• Haploid Cell: One set of chromosomes.

• Diploid Cell: Two sets of chromosomes.

• Sperm Cell: Male gamete.

• Egg Cell (Ovum): Female gamete.

Adaptations of Gametes for Fertilization

Structure of Gametes

Sperm Cell

Egg Cell

Lesson 3: Male and Female Reproductive Systems in Humans

• Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone.

• Ovaries: Release eggs and produce estrogen/progesterone.

• Uterus: Where fertilized egg develops.

• Fallopian Tube (Oviduct): Site of fertilization.

• Cervix: Muscle at the lower end of the Uterus.

• Vagina: Receives sperm.

• Scrotum: Holds testes, regulates temperature.

• Penis: Transfers sperm.

Male Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Lesson 4: Reproduction and Meiosis

• Meiosis: Cell division for gametes.

• Mitosis: Cell division for growth.

• Crossing Over: Exchange during meiosis.

Process Of Meiosis

• Produces four haploid gametes from one diploid cell

• Happens in testes and ovaries

• Involves two stages, Meiosis I, and Meiosis II

Meiosis I: (Chromosome number is halved)

Meiosis II: (Sister chromatids are separated)

Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

• Purpose of Meiosis: produces gametes, ensures correct count, introduces variation

Lesson 5: Fertilization and Implantation

• Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg.

• Zygote: Fertilized egg cell.

• Implantation: Embedding of embryo.

• Embryo: Ball of cells.

• Zona Pellucida (Jelly Coat): hardens after fertilization.

Fertilization Process

1. Sperm travels to the egg.

2. Sperm swims through the cervix, uterus, and fallopian tube.

3. Sperm surrounds the egg, one fertilizes it.

4. Acrosome breaks down jelly coat.

5. Sperm fuses membrane with egg.

6. Egg locks out other sperm.

7. Sperm joins egg nucleus, forming zygote.

Implantation Process

1. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.

2. Zygote divides by mitosis.

3. Divides into four cells, then eight.

4. Cell division is less regular.

5. Embryo becomes a ball of cells.

6. Moves down oviduct.

7. Embryo reaches the uterus.

8. Embryo implants into the uterus lining.

Lesson 6: Fertility Treatments

• Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg.

• Zygote: Fertilized egg cell.

• Implantation: Embedding of the embryo into the uterine lining.

• Embryo: Ball of cells formed from the zygote.

• Zona Pellucida (Jelly Coat): hardens after fertilization.

1. Artificial Insemination (AI): Sperm inserted into uterus.

   • Use donor sperm

   • Issues: Child not related to father

2. Fertility Drugs: Use hormones to stimulate egg/sperm. Risks: Multiple births

3. In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Fertilization in a lab.

   • Steps:

     1. Hormones to produce eggs

     2. Eggs collected and fertilized

     3. Embryos implanted

*Disadvantages And Possible Ethical Issues of Fertility Treatments:

• Expensive

• Stressful

• High chance of multiple births

- Not 100% successful