Greece in the 4th Century and the Hellenistic Period Study Notes

Administrative Announcements and Course Overview

  • Major Assignment Deadlines:

    • The major assignment is due today.

    • Late Penalties: In accordance with University policy, late submissions after 11:59pm on the due date incur a deduction of 2%2\% of the maximum mark for each calendar day late.

    • After ten calendar days, a mark of zero will be awarded.

    • Penalties for students with extensions apply after the new submission date. Students who have extensions that are not recognized in the system should email the staff.

  • Lecture Scope:

    • Recap of last week: Athens, Greece, the Peloponnesian War, and the Athenian Acropolis.

    • Greece in the 4th4^{th} Century and the Hellenistic Period.

    • Key focuses: Pella (Palace and Tombs), Alexander the Great, the Hellenistic Period, monumentality in art/sculpture, and self-profession.

Greek Sculpture Evolution and Techniques

  • Archaic and Early Classical Development:

    • Kouros (pl. kouroi): Male statues; development tracked from 590−580 BC590-580\,BC to 500−490 BC500-490\,BC.

    • Kore (pl. korai): Female statues.

    • Kritios Boy (c. 480 BCE): Represents the transition toward the Classical style.

    • Harmodius and Aristogeiton (477/476 BC): Known as the Tyrannicides.

    • Zeus/Poseidon of Artemision (c. 460 BC): A major bronze original found in the sea.

  • Bronze Sculptures:

    • Advantages over Stone: Bronze is lighter and possesses higher tensile strength, which allows for more dynamic "movement" in the figures.

    • Context: Increased use of bronze was driven by an increase in money and trade.

    • Production details: The use of glass eyes (examples found at Dodona) and clay cores (as seen in the Foundry Painter cup, circa 480 BC480\,BC).

    • Riace Bronzes (460-450 BC): Two soldiers discovered off the coast of Italy in 1972; their origin remains unknown.

  • Polyklitos and the "Canon":

    • Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), c. 440 BC: Known primarily through Roman copies. Polyklitos used this work to attempt the creation of the ultimate male body.

    • The Canon: A set of laws and mathematical equations providing a base for the "perfect" body. For example, the head should be 17th\frac{1}{7^{th}} the size of the body.

    • Chiastic Pose: A battle of opposites. In the Doryphoros, one foot is firm while the other implies movement; the left arm is relaxed while the right arm is flexed. This represents the shifting and turning of a naturally standing body.

    • Diadoumenos (c. 430 BC): Youth tying a fillet around his head. Over 40 Roman copies exist (including one from 69−96 AD69-96\,AD). It demonstrates contrapposto, where hips and shoulders are tilted at different angles.

Early Greek Settlement and the Polis

  • Lefkandi (Euboia):

    • A striking exception to the "Dark Age" narrative of depopulation and isolation.

    • The Toumba burial site reveals social stratification, centralized organization, and monumental construction.

    • Notable finds include the Lefkandi centaur and a gold necklace, indicating conspicuous wealth and widespread trade contacts.

  • Greek Colonization (8th - 7th c. BC):

    • Physical expansion across the Mediterranean and into Africa.

    • Pithekoussai: Established in the early to middle 8th8^{th} Century BC by Euboeans. It was a trading colony (emporio) that was small and easily defended. It contains a variety of materials.

    • Cumae: The subsequent colony established across the bay from Pithekoussai.

  • Archaeological Markers of the Polis (Astu):

    • Acropolis: The "high city."

    • Agora: The market place.

    • Cemetery: Always located outside the walls.

    • Other elements: Residential sector, sacred zones, and fortification walls.

    • Note: These archaeological features are often independent of the specific political structure (oligarchy, democracy, tyranny, monarchy).

The Athenian Empire and the Acropolis

  • The Delian League & Peloponnesian War (432-404 BC):

    • Tensions rose well before the war due to the Athenian control of the Delian League.

    • Pericles: Controlled the Athenian Empire; directed the flow of Delian League money to rebuild/repair Athens after the Persian Wars, initiating the Periclean Building Program.

  • The Parthenon (447-432 BC):

    • Architecture: A Doric temple with Ionic features. It includes an Ionic frieze, metopes, and a pediment.

    • Destruction: On September 26, 1687, Venetians attacked the Ottomans in Athens; the Parthenon exploded because the Ottomans were using it to store gunpowder.

    • Optical Corrections (Entasis): Used to prevent the temple from looking distorted to the human eye.

      • Convex stylobate: The base curves upward (E/W flank rises 6.5 cm6.5\,cm in 30.8 m30.8\,m; N/S flank rises 12 cm12\,cm in 69.5 m69.5\,m).

      • Corner columns are thicker by 6 cm6\,cm and placed 25 cm25\,cm closer together.

      • All columns lean inward by approximately 7 cm7\,cm toward the center.

    • Decorative Program:

      • Pediments: Birth of Athena (East); Contest between Athena and Poseidon (West).

      • Metopes: Amazonomachy (14 metopes), Sack of Troy (32), Centauromachy (32), and Gigantomachy (14).

      • Panathenaic Frieze: A 160 m160\,m long continuous frieze. It depicts two processions meeting at the center (above the main door). The center shows the peplos incident, where a child passes fabric to a priest while gods like Poseidon, Apollo, and Artemis flank the scene.

    • Athena Parthenos: Created by Pheidias (begun 447 BC) from ivory and gold (approximately 1100 kg1100\,kg of gold). The gold could be removed if the state needed funds.

  • The Erechtheion (c. 421-406 BC):

    • Orders: Ionic order; first temple to sit on multiple levels and first to use Eleusian blue limestone for the frieze.

    • Dedication: Dedicated to Athena, Poseidon-Erechtheus, Boutes, and Hephaistos. It covered religious land (e.g., the tomb of Cecrops).

    • The Karyatids: Six female figures used as columns. Their straight dress suggests support/strength, while a relaxed leg prevents them from appearing to buckle under weight. Hypothese range from them being daughters of Cecrops to representing the survivors of invasions by Sparta and her allies (432/1−425 BC432/1-425\,BC).

  • Temple of Athena Nike (427-424 BC):

    • Architect: Kallikrates. Style: Tetrastyle amphiprostyle Ionic.

    • The columns are "heavy" with a ratio of 7:17:1 (traditional Ionic is 9:19:1).

    • A parapet added in c.410 BCc. 410\,BC (featuring "Nike binding her sandal") likely served to promote "Victory" even as Athens was losing the war.

The 4th4^{th} Century BC and the Rise of Macedon

  • Political Context:

    • A power vacuum followed the Peloponnesian War (431−404 BC431-404\,BC). Sparta, Athens, and Thebes fought for hegemony.

    • 338 BC Battle of Chaironeia: King Philip II of Macedon defeated the combined Athenian and Theban forces.

    • 336 BC: Philip II is assassinated; Alexander the Great inherits the throne at age 20.

  • Macedonian Royal Sites:

    • Aigai (Vergina): The original capital and ongoing ceremonial capital.

    • Pella: The capital after 400 BC400\,BC.

  • Monarchy and Palatial Architecture (Vergina, ca. 270):

    • Palaces featured a central court surrounded by andrones (men's dining rooms/reception rooms).

    • Emphasized "façade architecture" (e.g., a long stoa entrance).

    • Pebble Mosaics: Elaborate black, white, and red mosaics. Examples include the Bellerophon Mosaic (Bellerophon on Pegasus killing the Chimaera: lion, goat, and snake).

  • Grand Domestic Architecture (Pella):

    • House of Dionysos: The largest private house, taking up an entire city block.

    • Lion Hunt Mosaic (c. 325-300 BCE): Measures 4.9×3.2 m4.9 \times 3.2\,m. It likely depicts Alexander the Great and Hephaestion (or Craterus) during a hunt. Shading and terracotta strips give depth to the mane and limbs.

    • Abduction of Helen Mosaic (325-300 BCE): Measures 8.4×2.8 m8.4 \times 2.8\,m. Noted for its complex composition, overlap of horses, and lead outlines for eyes.

The Royal Tombs of Vergina

  • Excavation: Discovered between 1976-1979 by Manolis Andronikos.

  • Tomb II Contents:

    • The Main Chamber: Contained a male cremation burial. Bones were wrapped in purple cloth and placed in a gold chest (larnax) decorated with the Vergina Sun (symbol of Macedon).

    • Tomb Goods: A golden oak leaf wreath, silver banqueting set, and a ceremonial gold/ivory shield.

    • Armor Evidence: A gorytos (gold sheath for bows/arrows) and bronze greaves of different lengths.

  • Identification: The evidence (skull damage to the right eye and uneven greaves) aligns with the historical record of King Philip II. The second burial in the tomb is likely his last wife, Kleopatra.

  • Tomb at Agios Athanasios (c. 300 BCE): Features a 3.75 m3.75\,m frieze showing a funerary banquet with the deceased (possibly a general) and family.

The Hellenistic Period (323 BC – 31 BC)

  • Chronology: From the death of Alexander (323 BC) to the death of Cleopatra/Battle of Actium (31 BC).

  • Successor Kingdoms (Diadochi):

    • Antigonids: Macedon/Greece (Capital: Pella).

    • Seleucids: The East (Capital: Antioch).

    • Ptolemies: Egypt (Capital: Alexandria).

    • Attalids: Asia Minor (Capital: Pergamon).

  • Characteristics of the Period:

    • Monumentalism: Taking basic Greek forms and expanding them to "God scale" (Life Writ Large).

    • Cosmopolitanism: Expansion of Greek language, philosophy, and art throughout the known world.

    • Monarchy: The standard form of rule; a growing divide between rich and poor.

  • The Great Altar of Pergamon (ca. 180-159 BC):

    • Built by Eumenes II. Dedicated to Zeus and Athena.

    • Gigantomachy Frieze: 113 m113\,m long and 2.3 m2.3\,m high. It features bold high relief that "extends into the viewer's space." Notable scene: Athena and Nike conquering the giant Alkyoneus, whose mother Gaia looks on.

  • Temple of Apollo at Didyma (ca. 300 BC):

    • Massive Ionic structure (109.38×51.14 m109.38 \times 51.14\,m) with columns 19.7 m19.7\,m high.

    • The Experience: Entrance involves a dark, angled barrel vault (20 m20\,m) leading into a sun-lit interior. The interior was never roofed and contained a smaller temple inside, frustrating traditional expectations to enhance emotion/surprise.

  • Self-Promotion through Imagery:

    • Alexander the Great: Characterized by the anastole hairstyle (resembling a lion's mane), a beardless face, and deep-set eyes.

    • Coinage: Used to promote divinity. Ptolemaic coins showed Alexander wearing an elephant scalp (symbolizing conquest of India) or holding a thunderbolt (Zeus imagery).

The Rise of Rome and the End of the Hellenistic Era

  • Key Transitions:

    • 168 BC: Battle of Pydna (Macedonians defeated).

    • 146 BC: Sack of Corinth; Greece becomes a Roman province.

    • 133 BC: The Attalids bequeath their kingdom to Rome.

    • 86 BC: Athens is sacked by Sulla.

    • 31 BC: Battle of Actium; end of the Ptolemaic dynasty.