Lecture 2: Persia and Greece: An Overview

Classic/History 36C: Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic World

Lecture 2: Persia and Greece: An Overview

Herodotus

  • Identity and Dates

    • Greek historian Herodotus, traditionally dated 484-425 BCE.

    • Originated from Halicarnassus located in Caria (southwestern Anatolia/Asia Minor).

  • Historical Contribution

    • Credited with inventing the genre of history.

    • Authored a detailed account of the Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE) and its historical context.

    • His work, Herodotus' Histories, is preserved in its entirety and consists of 9 books.

    • Serves as one of the primary sources for the interactions between Greece and Persia.

Rise of Persia

  • Persian Homeland

    • Located in southwestern Iran, specifically in the area known as Fars (Old Persian Parsa).

    • The Greek term for this region is Persis.

  • Cyrus II (The Great or The Elder)

    • Ruled as Persian king from 559-530 BCE.

    • Established the Persian Empire.

    • Dated by the Babylonian chronicle as 550 BCE, he conquered the Medes, an Iranian people residing northwest of the Persians.

    • In the 540s BCE, Cyrus conquered Lydia in Anatolia.

    • Croesus, the Lydian king (560-540s BCE), had his capital in Sardis and subjected Greek poleis in Ionia to tribute (Greek term: phoros).

    • Known for his immense wealth and possibly being the first to mint gold coins, a practice likely initiated by the Lydians.

    • The Greeks may have adopted the term turannos, meaning autocrat or tyrant, from the Lydians.

  • Effects on Ionia

    • The Ionians came under Persian dominion and were required to pay tribute (phoros) to the Persians.

  • Cambyses II

    • Son of Cyrus II, ruled from 530-522 BCE.

    • In 525 BCE, he conquered Egypt.

    • While Cambyses was in Egypt, his brother Bardiya seized the throne.

  • Darius I

    • Reigned from 522-486 BCE.

    • Killed Bardiya and usurped the throne.

    • Claimed to be a descendant of Achaemenes, the legendary ancestor of Cyrus II and Cambyses.

    • The Achaemenid Persian Empire effectively begins with Darius I.

    • According to Herodotus (3.89), Darius divided the empire into approximately 20 provinces (satrapies).

  • Bisitun Relief and Inscription

    • Created in Media, carved between 521-519 BCE.

    • Darius' inscription defends his actions in claiming the throne and describes his suppression of rebellions by imposters like a false Bardiya named Gaumata.

    • The inscription is trilingual (Elamite, Babylonian, Old Persian) in cuneiform script, which helped scholars to decipher all three languages, akin to the Rosetta Stone.

    • Darius claimed that copies of the Bisitun inscription were distributed throughout the empire, including Ionia, possibly serving as a source for Herodotus' account on the rise of Darius I.

  • Xerxes

    • Succeeded Darius I as king from 486-465 BCE.

Ionian Revolt

  • Initial Interactions

    • The Ionians were the first Greeks to interact with Persians, labeling non-Greeks as barbaroi (later known as "barbarians").

    • They referred to Persians as "Medes," indicating their role as foreign aggressors.

  • Timeline of Revolt

    • The Ionian Revolt occurred from 499-494 BCE.

    • Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, sought assistance from Sparta (was rejected) and approached Athens.

    • Athenians agreed to send 20 ships as aid alongside 5 ships from Eretria. This marked the start of troubles for the Greeks (as noted by Herodotus in 5.97).

  • Actions in Revolt

    • During 498 BCE, Aristagoras, with support from Ionians, Athenians, and Eretrians, attacked and burned Sardis, which included a temple dedicated to the Anatolian goddess Cybebe as detailed in Herodotus (5.100-102 = AR 2).

    • Following their successful mission, the Athenians returned home, and by 494 BCE, Persians successfully quelled the revolt, punishing and sacking Miletus.

Battle of Marathon

  • Preliminary Actions

    • In 490 BCE, Darius dispatched a force to punish Athens and Eretria, succeeding in enslaving the Eretrians, who were later deported near Susa.

    • The Persian forces landed at Marathon, guided by the exiled and aged Athenian tyrant Hippias.

  • Military Engagement

    • The Athenian forces, joined by the Plataeans (an ally of Athens), formed their battle line at Marathon.

    • The thin center of their formation appeared to falter, creating an opportunity for the massed wings to converge on the Persians, ultimately leading to a Greek victory.

  • Casualty Reports

    • According to Herodotus (6.117), 6400 Persians and 192 Athenians were killed.

  • Retreat of Persians

    • The remaining Persian forces sailed towards Athens, while the Athenians swiftly returned to defend their city, leading the Persians to abandon their campaign.

Xerxes' Invasion of 480-479 BCE

  • Transition of Power

    • Xerxes ascended to kingship after Darius I's death in 486 BCE.

  • Military Preparations

    • In 480 BCE, Xerxes assembled a massive land army and fleet.

    • Herodotus (7.60) cites the figure of 1.7 million troops, although modern estimates suggest the actual number was only around 100-200 thousand.

  • Invasion Campaign

    • The Persian forces marched out from Sardis, with Xerxes calling for "earth and water" as symbols of submission to Persia, coinciding with a possible Athenian offer of earth and water around 507 BCE.

Formation of the Hellenic League

  • Creation of the League

    • The Hellenic League was formed in 481 BCE, serving as an alliance of Greek poleis united against the Persian invasion of 480-479 BCE.

  • Composition of the League

    • Included the Peloponnesian League (Sparta, Corinth, etc.), as well as Athens, Aegina, and several other Greek poleis.

    • Sparta was recognized as the leader of the league.

Persian War (480-479 BCE)

  • Conflict Overview

    • The Persian War involved the Hellenic League opposed to Xerxes' invading forces.

  • Significant Battles

    • Five main battles occurred during the conflict:

    1. Thermopylae (480 BCE)

      • On land, fought in a narrow mountain pass near Euboea; resulted in a decisive Persian victory.

    2. Artemisium (480 BCE)

      • Naval engagement near Thermopylae; resulted in a draw.

    3. Salamis (480 BCE)

      • Naval battle near Athens; marked a significant Greek victory.

    4. Plataea (479 BCE)

      • Land battle that resulted in a decisive Greek victory.

    5. Mycale (479 BCE)

      • Amphibious operation on the southern Ionian coast leading to another decisive Greek victory.

  • Consequences of the Mycale Victory

    • Resulted in the liberation of Ionian cities and Aegean islands from Persian control, occurring prior to the Battle of Salamis.

  • Fall of Athens

    • Xerxes captured Athens in 480 BCE; during this, the oracle from Delphi advised to trust in a "wooden wall".

    • Themistocles interpreted this as a reference to ships, while others believed it meant building a wall at the Athenian Acropolis.

    • Athens was largely evacuated with only priests and the poor remaining, tragically leading to their slaughter on the acropolis and the plundering and burning of temples by the Persians, mirroring earlier actions taken at Sardis.

Cyrus the Younger's Attempt to Overthrow Artaxerxes II (401 BCE)

  • Context of the Peloponnesian War

    • Occurred from 431-404 BCE, pitting Sparta and its allies against Athens and its subjects.

    • During the rule of Persian king Darius II (423-405 BCE), his son: Cyrus the Younger emerged as a significant figure, particularly in the latter stages of the war.

  • Cyrus' Strategy

    • Cyrus aimed to build a mercenary army and had amassed approximately 12,900 Greek mercenaries, often referred to as the "Ten Thousand."

  • Battle of Cunaxa (401 BCE)

    • The battle was fought near Babylon where Cyrus met Artaxerxes II.

    • Xenophon documented that Cyrus was killed while charging towards the king.

  • Aftermath and Retreat

    • The subsequent katabasis (literally, "march down country") was the retreat of the Greek army from Babylonia back toward Anatolia.

    • The destination became the Black Sea, where the Greeks famously shouted "The Sea! The Sea!" (in Greek: thalassa).

Greek Military Superiority and Stability of Persian Rule

  • Assessment by the Greeks

    • The Greek narrative during and after these conflicts posited the superiority of the Greek hoplite, or heavily armed foot soldier, over Persian troops, signaling the perceived instability of Persian rule.

Isocrates and Panhellenism

  • Definition of Panhellenism

    • Concept signifying the collaboration of all Greek poleis for a common objective.

  • Isocrates' Advocacy

    • Recognized as a prominent Athenian rhetorician and educator, Isocrates long promoted the idea of a unified Panhellenic war against Persia.

    • In 380 BCE, he articulated this proposal in his speech, the Panegyricus.

Jason of Pherae

  • Historical Significance

    • Jason, the king of Thessaly, aimed to unify the Greeks in a Panhellenic invasion of Persia.

    • According to Roman writer Valerius Maximus from the first century CE, he is likened to a proto-Philip II.

  • Assassination and Impact

    • Jason was assassinated by a faction of Thessalians in 370 BCE.