Criminology: Theories of Crime and Deviance
Understanding Theories of Crime
Fundamental Questions in Criminology
Criminological theories aim to answer at least one of three core questions:
Why are some individuals more prone to committing crime than others?
Why are certain demographic or social categories of people more likely to engage in crime?
Why is criminal activity more prevalent in specific geographical locations or environments?
Explanatory Frameworks for Crime
Neoclassical & Sociological Explanations:
Primarily focus on categories of people and specific locations as determinants of crime.
Sociological explanations posit that the root causes of crime originate outside the individual, embedded in social structures and environments.
Biological & Psychological Explanations:
Tend to concentrate on individual characteristics.
Biological explanations propose that the causes of crime are located inside the individual, referring to inherent biological predispositions.
Historical Perspectives on Crime and Deviance
Ancient Beliefs: Gods and Demons
In ancient times, deviant behavior was attributed to several supernatural reasons:
A test of faith from God.
Divine punishment from God.
God using an individual's behavior as a warning to others to adhere to His will.
Possession by malevolent demons.
The Enlightenment Era (18^{th} Century)
Core Beliefs:
Emphasis on human free will and the power of reason.
Rejection of the idea that God directly controls human behavior.
Impact:
Introduced novel ways of comprehending both natural and social phenomena.
Significantly diminished the pervasive influence of organized religion.
The prevailing view became that God had endowed humanity with the capacity to govern themselves.
Paradox of the Age of Reason: Despite the emphasis on reason, England, during this period, continued to apply the death penalty for an astonishing 200 or more different crimes.
Classical Criminology and Deterrence Theory
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)
Often regarded as the Father of Modern Criminology, Cesare Beccaria is strongly associated with Classical Criminology and Deterrence Theory.
Authored the influential treatise "On Crimes and Punishments" in 1764.
He vehemently criticized the prevailing criminal justice system in Europe, advocating for reforms.
Key Principles:
Utilitarianism: The belief that actions are right if they are useful or for the benefit of a majority. Applied to law, it signifies that punishment should serve the greatest good for the greatest number.
Believed in the existence of free will and rational choice in human decision-making.
Pleasure Principle: Proposed that human behavior is fundamentally guided by the desire to maximize pleasure and simultaneously minimize pain.
Views on Punishment:
Beccaria argued that the severity of legal punishment should be strictly limited to only what is absolutely necessary to deter individuals from committing crimes.
Rational-Choice Theory (Contemporary Classical Criminology)
Core Assumption: Individuals make a conscious choice to commit crime after evaluating the potential rewards against the risks involved.
Key Proponent: Gary S. Becker, a Nobel-winning economist from the University of Chicago, is a key proponent of Rational-Choice Theory.
Research Focus:
Studies on active offenders, such as robbers, burglars, and others.
Distinction between offenders who meticulously plan their crimes and those who act on impulse with minimal forethought.
Emphasizes the criminal event itself, focusing on the immediate situational factors and opportunities that influence the decision to offend.
Concepts like situational crime prevention are derived from this theory.
Acknowledges the role of substances like drugs and alcohol in influencing rational choices.
Methodology: Utilizes the scientific method to systematically study human behavior.
Critique/Problem: One criticism is that the theory implicitly assumes criminals are fundamentally different from non-criminals, which may oversimplify the complexities of criminal behavior.
Routine Activities Theory
Routine Activities Theory is often considered a component of the broader opportunity theory of crime.
This theory explains changes in crime rates by focusing on shifts in:
The availability of attractive targets.
The presence or absence of capable guardianship.
Criminal Opportunity Structure: Crime rates are largely dictated by the opportunities available, not just individual motivations.
Insights on Victimization: Routine activities, such as spending more time away from the protective environment of one's home, are correlated with increased chances of victimization.
Three Simultaneous Factors for Crime: Crime is most likely to occur when the following three elements converge at the same time and in the same location:
Motivated offenders.
Attractive and suitable targets.
An absence of capable guardianship (e.g., police, homeowners, security systems).
Dynamic Nature of Crime: Changes in people's daily routine activities directly lead to fluctuations in crime rates.
Assumption: There will always be a continuous supply of motivated offenders within society.
Neoclassical Perspective and Deterrence Theory
Core Assumption: Both the potential and actual enforcement of legal punishment play a crucial role in deterring criminal behavior.
Synonymous Relationship: Rational choice theory and deterrence theory are frequently used interchangeably due to their shared underlying principles.
Policy Implications: This perspective forms the philosophical foundation for the "get tough" approach to crime, advocating for harsher punishments and increased incarceration through the construction of more prisons.
Types of Deterrence:
Absolute Deterrence: Compares the effect of having any legal punishment for a crime versus having no legal punishment at all.
Marginal Deterrence: Examines the effect of increasing the severity, certainty, and/or swiftness of existing legal punishment.
General Deterrence: Occurs when members of the general public choose not to violate the law because they fear the potential legal consequences or punishment.
Specific Deterrence: Applies to individual offenders who have already experienced legal punishment and subsequently decide not to commit future crimes.
Objective Deterrence: Refers to the actual, measurable impact of legal punishment on crime rates.
Subjective Deterrence: Pertains to the influence that individuals' perceptions of the likelihood and severity of legal punishment have on their criminal decision-making.
Research Focus: Most empirical research on deterrence has concentrated on the certainty and severity of punishment.
Early Research Findings: System capacity argument – suggests that the actual effectiveness of deterrence can be limited by the capacity of the criminal justice system to apprehend and punish offenders.
Situational Crime Prevention
Definition: These are targeted efforts implemented in specific locations designed to reduce criminal opportunities.
Objectives: Aim to achieve three main goals:
Reduce potential offenders' exposure to opportunities.
Decrease the suitability or attractiveness of potential targets.
Boost the presence and effectiveness of capable guardians.
Examples of Strategies:
Installation or enhancement of lighting and camera surveillance systems in urban streets and public recreational areas.
Provision and installation of advanced security systems for motor vehicles, commercial properties, and private residences.
Implementation of hot-spot policing, which involves concentrating law enforcement resources in areas with high crime rates.