Unit 2: Cognition --- notes

Learning Targets

  • Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.

  • Clarify how visual perceptual processes produce accurate or inaccurate interpretations of stimuli.

  • Discuss how psychological concepts and theories explain thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making.

  • Describe the types, structures, and processes of memory.

  • Analyze how different encoding processes work to get information into memory.

  • Explain how memory storage processes help retain information.

  • Discuss memory retrieval processes for accessing stored information.

  • Identify possible reasons for memory failures or errors.

  • Overview modern and historical theories of intelligence.

  • Explain methods of measuring intelligence.

  • Examine systemic issues in the quantitative and qualitative uses of intelligence assessments.

  • Compare academic achievement and intelligence as experienced and measured.

Module 2.1: Perception

Selective Attention

  • Human brains cannot multitask effectively; focus is essential to avoid overload.

  • Selective attention involves directing awareness toward a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Cocktail Party Effect

  • Refers to the ability to focus on one conversation in a lively environment while filtering out background noise.

Missing Information

  • Inattentional Blindness: Failing to see visible objects because attention is focused elsewhere.

  • Change Blindness: Not noticing changes in the environment due to lack of attention.

Distracted Driving

  • Studies show that 58% of teen driver accidents were due to distractions, highlighting the dangers of texting and driving.

Effects of Context, Motivation, & Emotion

  • Expectations: Past experiences influence what we expect to perceive, contributing to a perceptual set.

  • Context: External factors (the environment) can alter perception.

  • Motivation: People tend to see what they want to see, which can affect perception.

  • Emotion: Current feelings can alter experiences and perceptions.

Gestalt Psychology

  • Developed in early 20th century; focuses on how individuals place stimuli into organized wholes (gestalts).

  • Principles:

    • Proximity: Grouping nearby objects together.

    • Similarity: Grouping similar objects together.

    • Continuity: Objects forming a continuous shape are perceived together.

    • Connectedness: Elements linked by other elements are viewed as one unit.

    • Closure: Filling gaps to create a complete image or concept.

Figure Ground

  • Refers to identifying an object (figure) from its background (ground).

Depth Perception

  • Ability to perceive distance and three-dimensionality through cues.

  • Studied with visual cliff experiments, indicating innate depth perception in infants.

Monocular & Binocular Cues

  • Monocular cues: depth cues available to one eye (linear perspective, interposition, relative size, etc.).

  • Binocular cues: depth perception relying on both eyes (like retinal disparity).

Perceiving Motion

  • Stroboscopic Effect: perceiving a series of still images as continuous movement.

  • Phi Phenomenon: perceived motion from adjacent lights blinking on and off.

  • Autokinetic Effect: stationary light appears to move due to eye movement.

Constancy

  • Ability to perceive objects as stable, regardless of changes in illumination and retinal images.

  • Types include color, shape, size, and brightness constancy.

Module 2.3: Introduction to Memory

What is Memory?

  • Definition: Persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

  • Encoding: Getting information into memory.

  • Storage: Retaining information over time.

  • Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

Types of Memory

  • Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Facts and experiences consciously known (semantic and episodic).

  • Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: Retained skills and conditioned associations without conscious recollection (procedural).

  • Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform future tasks.

Three-Stage Model of Memory

  • Proposes three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

  • Information is initially recorded fleetingly and then processed into short-term memory through rehearsal before moving into long-term storage.

Memory Processing

  • Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information.

  • Effortful Processing: Requires conscious effort and attention, often involving strategies like chunking and mnemonics for better retention.

Synaptic Changes and Long-Term Potentiation

  • Neural pathways strengthen with use, allowing skills to improve with practice.

Working Memory

  • Enhanced understanding of short-term memory involving conscious, active processing of information, alongside structured aspects (phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad).

Module 2.4: Encoding Memories

Strategies for Effective Encoding

  • Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units.

  • Mnemonics: Memory aids that incorporate vivid imagery and organization.

  • Spacing Effect: Distributed practice yields better memory retention.

  • Testing Effect: Enhanced retention through retrieval practice.

Module 2.5: Storing Memories

Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Hippocampus & Frontal Lobes: Explicit memory storage (semantic and episodic).

  • Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia: Procedural memory.

  • Amygdala: Emotional memory storage.

Module 2.6: Retrieving Memories

Testing Memory

  • Recall vs. recognition vs. relearning methods to measure retention.

Factors Influencing Retrieval

  • Priming: Unconscious activation of associations.

  • Context and State-Dependent Memory: Memory retrieval aids from similar contexts and emotional states during encoding.

  • Serial Position Effect: Tendency to recall the first and last items in a list best.

Module 2.7: Forgetting

Reasons for Forgetting

  • Encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, and other causes (e.g., motivated forgetting, amnesia).

  • Types of Amnesia: Anterograde (inability to form new memories) and retrograde (inability to recall past memories).

Memory Construction and Misinformation Effect

  • Memory is not flawless; it can be distorted or misrepresented over time through misinformation.

Module 2.8: Intelligence

Definition and Measurement of Intelligence

  • Intelligence encompasses learning from experience, problem-solving, and adaptability to situations.

  • Various methods of testing intelligence (achievement tests, aptitude tests).

Theories of Intelligence

  • Spearman: General intelligence (g) versus specialized mental abilities.

  • Gardner: Multiple intelligences.

  • Sternberg: Triarchic model (analytical, creative, and practical intelligences).

Testing and Observations

  • Intelligence testing highlights underlying abilities but raises concerns about cultural bias and accuracy.

Influences on Intelligence

  • Genetic factors versus environmental impact on cognitive development.

  • Evolution of intelligence testing and its socio-cultural implications.