History of Georgia from the IX Century to the Early XX Century

George I and the Political Shifts of the IX-XI Centuries

In the period spanning the IX to XI centuries, the political landscape surrounding the Georgian state underwent significant transformations. The weakening of the Abbasid Caliphate led to its fragmentation, resulting in several kingdoms emerging south of Georgia in Iran, and the state of the Shirvanshahs being established in the east, specifically in the territory of modern-day Azerbaijan. To the north, the Khazar Khaganate also weakened and practically vanished by the X century. Consequently, Byzantium remained the only strong neighboring state at Georgia's borders. From the 80s of the X century, the Byzantine Empire was engaged in a thirty-year war with the strong kingdom of Bulgaria on the Balkan Peninsula. Following the death of Bagrat III in $1014$, his twelve-year-old son George I was crowned. Immediately upon his coronation, Kvirike III the Great, the King of Kakheti who had been displaced by Bagrat III, took advantage of George's minority to reclaim his throne. Furthermore, Hereti seceded from Georgia, and Kvirike headed the unified kingdom of Kakheti-Hereti. Despite this setback, George I and his nobles decided to exploit the Byzantine-Bulgarian war to reclaim territories that the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II, had received according to the will of David III Kuropalates.

George I's reign was largely spent in struggle against Byzantium. The Georgian army invaded and occupied Trialeti. This enraged Basil II, but he was preoccupied with the Bulgarians. Between $1014$ and $1019$, Basil defeated the Bulgarians several times, culminating in the capture of their capital, Ochrid, in $1019$. The Byzantines under Basil II famously blinded $15,000$ Bulgarian prisoners, leaving every hundredth man with one eye to lead the others home. This brutality earned the emperor the epithet "Bulgar-Slayer." Once the Bulgarian kingdom ceased to exist and became a Byzantine province, Basil II turned his attention back to Georgia, demanding George I answer for the appropriation of David Kuropalates' heritage. George I refused the Emperor's order to vacate the lands given to his father as a gift, responding that he would not cede even a single house of what his father had governed. Basil II sent an army to conquer the land by force. Although George initially attempted to negotiate while the Emperor wintered in Trabzon, sending an envoy with promises to return forts and David's settlements, the Emperor took a firm oath from the Georgian clergy and nobles. However, when Byzantium faced internal revolts by Nikephoros Phokas (the "Wry-Necked") and Nikephoros Xiphias, George I reneged on his promise. Ultimately, Basil II defeated George I's forces. In $1023$, a peace treaty was signed; George cedes forts and estates (including Tao), and his son Bagrat was taken as a hostage to Constantinople for three years. George I died in Trialeti in $1027$ and was buried in Kutaisi. His reign saw the near-completion of the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta, constructed between $1010$ and $1029$ by the architect Arsukidze under Catholicos Melchizedek.

Bagrat IV and the Internal-External Precarity

Following George I's death, his nine-year-old son Bagrat IV ascended the throne ($1027$-$1072$). Feudal lords from Tao, hostile to the central authority, took advantage of the king's minority to hand over their forts to the Byzantines. Emperor Constantine VIII ($1025$-$1028$) sent troops that ravaged Javakheti, Trialeti, and Shavshet-Klarjeti. Resistance was led by Liparit Baghvashi (Eristavi of Kldekari) and high-ranking clergy. In $1028$, the new Emperor Romanos III agreed to peace, granting Bagrat IV the title of Kuropalates and his niece Helena as a wife. This diplomatic marriage failed to stabilize relations as Helena soon died. The Byzantine court subsequently supported Bagrat's half-brother Demetrius for the Georgian throne. Though this failed, the Byzantines occupied the Anakopia fortress held by Demetrius. In the $1040s$, Byzantium interfered again during the conflict between Bagrat IV and Liparit Baghvashi. In $1032$, Liparit and Ivane Abazasdze captured the Emir of Tbilisi, Jafar, but the king released him, fearing the growing power of the capturing nobles. A two-year siege of Tbilisi in $1037$ also ended without capture for similar political reasons or due to the emergence of Oghuz Seljuks. After Jafar's death in $1046$, Bagrat briefly took Tbilisi but lost it again during an uprising by Liparit. In the Battle of Sasireti ($1046$), Liparit defeated the king, leaving Bagrat controlling only Western Georgia. Bagrat reclaimed Kartli and Tbilisi only while Liparit was a prisoner of the Seljuks at Kapetron in $1048$. Bagrat IV eventually traveled to Constantinople in $1054$ to negotiate reconciliation with Liparit through the Emperor's mediation. He returned in $1057$, and Liparit was eventually captured by Sula Kalmakheli and other nobles, ending his career as a monk named Anton. Bagrat IV died on November $24$, $1072$.

The Emergence of the Seljuk Turks and George II

The Seljuk Turks, Oghuz nomadic tribes from Central Asia, appeared in the Near East in the XI century. Under Sultan Tughril Beg, they conquered Khwarezm, Iran, Iraq, and Kurdistan. In $1064$, Sultan Alp Arslan launched a massive invasion of Georgia, besieging Akhalkalaki. The city fell after a three-day battle, and Bagrat IV's niece was married to the Sultan as part of the settlement. In $1068$, the Sultan invaded again during winter. Following Bagrat IV's death, George II ($1072$-$1089$) ascended. He initially found success, defeating the Turks at Partskhisi in $1074$. However, starting in $1080$, "The Great Turkishness" (Didi Turkoba) began—annual nomadic invasions that devastated the countryside, agriculture, and cities like Artanuji and Kutaisi. By $1083$, George II realized resistance was futile and traveled to Sultan Malik-Shah to submit as a tributary. The Sultan recognized George II's authority over Kakheti-Hereti and sent troops to help him reclaim it, but George abandoned the siege of Vejini to hunt in Western Georgia, appearing reluctant to help the Seljuks capture Georgian territory.

David IV the Builder and the Golden Age Reforms

In $1089$, the sixteen-year-old David IV ascended. He initiated systematic changes, creating mobile squads to stop Seljuk raids. After the First Crusade ($1096$-$1099$) weakened Seljuk power in the Levant, David ceased the payment of tribute. He dealt harshly with rebellious nobles, exiling Liparit V Baghvashi and turning Trialeti into royal property. In $1104$, the King convened the Ruisi-Urbnisi Church Council. The resulting document, "Dzerylisgera," purged the church of those who bought positions (Simony) and set minimum ages for clergy: $35$ for bishops, $30$ for priests, and $25$ for deacons. He also combined the offices of the Secretary (Mtsignobartukhutsesi) and the Bishop of Chqondidi into one high office. He established the "Mstovarta" (spy) service for intelligence and the "Saajo Kari" court for legal affairs. In the military, he formed the "Mona-Spa" (a personal guard of $5,000$) and the "Roqis-Spa" (mercenaries). In $1118$, he resettled $40,000$ Kipchak families from the North Caucasus (his second wife, Gurandukht, was the daughter of their leader). Each family provided one armed soldier, creating a standing army loyal to the king. David captured Samshvilde ($1110$), Rustavi ($1115$), and Lori ($1118$). On August $12$, $1121$, he won the Battle of Didgori against a massive Muslim coalition led by Il-Ghazi. In $1122$, he recaptured Tbilisi, making it the capital. David IV, known as "The Builder," died on January $24$, $1125$, leaving a legacy that included the Gelati Academy.

Demetrius I, George III, and the Regency of Tamar

Demetrius I ($1125$-$1156$) focused on maintaining David's conquests. Though he yielded Ani and Shirvan to former rulers as vassals, he captured Ganja in $1139$ following an earthquake, bringing its gates back to Georgia. Demetrius was known for his religious tolerance in Tbilisi, visiting mosques and patronizing Muslim scholars. His reign was marred by conflict between his sons, David V and George III. After a brief coup by David V, George III ($1155$-$1184$) eventually stabilized the throne. George III successfully campaigned in Ani but faced a major rebellion in $1177$ led by the Orbeli family and his nephew, Prince Demna. George III crushed the rebellion, blinded Demna, and executed the Orbelis, promoting non-aristocratic loyalists like Qubasar and Afridon to high offices. In $1178$, having no male heir, he co-crowned his daughter Tamar.

The Reign of Tamar the Great

Tamar ($1184$-$1207/1210$) was recrowned by the nobles in $1184$ to assert their influence. A group led by the treasurer Qutlu Arslan demanded the creation of a "Karavi" (Tent)—a separate chamber to decide state affairs, which would then be reported to the Queen. Tamar suppressed this first push toward a parliamentary system by arresting Qutlu Arslan and negotiating with the group. She married Yuri (George the Russian) in $1185$, but divorced him due to his behavior and married David Soslan, a Bagrationi from the Ossetian branch, in $1189$. Tamar's reign saw brilliant victories at Shamkhor ($1195$) and Basiani ($1202$), and the founding of the Trebizond Empire in $1204$ under Alexios Komnenos. She died between $1207$ and $1210$ and was buried at Gelati.

The Mongol Invasions and the Fragmentation of Georgia

George IV Lasha ($1210$-$1223$) faced unsuccessful campaigns in Khlath but maintained order until the Mongols first appeared in $1220$ for reconnaissance. George IV died from wounds received during these encounters in $1223$, succeeded by his sister Rusudan ($1223$-$1245$). Her reign was catastrophic. In $1225$, Jalal ad-Din, the Khwarazmshah fleeing the Mongols, invaded Georgia and defeated the Georgians at Garni. Tbilisi fell in $1226$, where he reportedly executed $100,000$ citizens who refused to desecrate Christian icons. The Mongol conquest followed in $1235$. Rusudan fled to Western Georgia, and the nobles submitted individually. The peace treaty of $1242$ turned Georgia into a Mongol tributary paying $50,000$ perpers annually. Heroic resistance was noted from Tsotne Dadiani during a failed uprising in Ani. After Rusudan's death, the Mongol Khan appointed two kings: David VI Narin (the Junior) and David VII Ulu (the Senior). Georgia was divided into seven military administrative units (Dumans). Following David Ulu's death in $1270$, the throne passed to the minor Demetrius II ($1270$-$1289$), managed by the pro-Mongol Sadun Mankaberdeli. Demetrius II famously sacrificed himself, traveling to the Mongol Golden Horde to face execution to prevent a retaliatory Mongol invasion of Georgia.

George V the Brilliant and the Restoration of Unity

By the end of the XIII century, Georgia was in chaos with three simultaneous kings. George V the Brilliant ($1314$-$1346$), taking advantage of the internal struggles within the Mongol Ilkhanate and his close ties with the vizier Choban Noyan, began reuniting the country. He expelled the Ossetians from Gori, eliminated opposition at Tsivi Mountain, and unified Eastern and Western Georgia. In $1320$, he secured the return of the Cross Monastery in Jerusalem from Egypt. He instituted the legal code "Dzerylisdeba" to bring order to the mountain regions. He ceased Mongol tribute and expelled Mongol garrisons when the Ilkhanate collapsed in $1335$. He died in $1346$ as a restorer of the Georgian state.

The Invasions of Tamerlane and the Collapse of Monarchy

From $1386$ to $1403$, Tamerlane (Timur Leng) launched eight devastating invasions of Georgia. King Bagrat V was captured and briefly converted to Islam to survive, while George VII ($1393$-$1407$) offered fierce resistance. These wars destroyed agriculture and the population. Alexander I the Great ($1412$-$1442$) tried to rebuild, imposing a $40$-tetri tax for church reconstruction, but he eventually abdicated to become a monk. By the end of George VIII's reign, the fall of Constantinople in $1453$ and the Ottoman blockade of the Black Sea left Georgia isolated. The kingdom officially fragmented in $1490$ into Kartli, Kakheti, and Imereti, alongside the Samtske principality.

The Safavid-Ottoman Era and Russian Annexation

In the XVI century, Georgia became a battleground between Safavid Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Luarsab I ($1527$-$1556$) and his son Simon I ($1556$-$1600$) fought valiantly but were overwhelmed. Simon I spent years in Persian and Ottoman prisons, eventually dying in the Yedikule fortress. In the XVII century, the Great Mouravi, Giorgi Saakadze, masterminded the victories at Martqopi and Marabda ($1625$), though he eventually fled to the Ottomans. King Vakhtang VI ($1703$-$1724$) attempted a European and Russian orientation, establishing the first printing press in $1709$, but was abandoned by Peter I of Russia and died in exile. His successors, Teimuraz II and Erekle II, temporarily reunified Kartli and Kakheti. Erekle II signed the Treaty of Georgievsk in $1783$, placing Georgia under Russian protection. However, Russia failed to help during the Qajar invasion in $1795$ (Battle of Krtsanisi), and in $1801$, the Russian Empire abolished the Georgian monarchy and annexed the country. The last king of Kartli-Kakheti was George XII. Resistance followed, including the $1832$ conspiracy, but the Russian administration, particularly under Viceroy Mikhail Vorontsov, consolidated control. The XIX century saw the rise of the "Tergdaleulebi" (those who drank the waters of the Terek), a national revival movement led by Ilia Chavchavadze, which sought cultural and eventually political independence from the Russian Empire through education, language reform, and the abolition of serfdom in the $1860s$.

Questions & Discussion

Question: Why did King George II of Georgia abandon the siege of the Vejini fortress? Response: According to the chronicle, the king felt a longing for hunting in the Ajameti forest as winter approached. However, historians interpret this as a political move; George II could not refuse the Sultan's aid but did not want to personally participate in capturing a Georgian region with the help of Seljuk forces, so he distanced himself and went to Western Georgia.

Question: What was the significance of the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral during George I's reign? Response: The cathedral's construction, completed around $1029$, serves as a monumental symbol of Georgian unified culture and church authority. George I is credited by historical chronicles as being courageous ("without fear") and full of all virtues appropriate for a monarch, and the cathedral remains a UNESCO World Heritage site representing this era.

Question: How did the Tergdaleulebi impact Georgian society? Response: Led by figures like Ilia Chavchavadze and Akaki Tsereteli, they modernized the Georgian language by removing five archaic letters and created the Society for the Spreading of Literacy in $1879$. They focused on the trinity of "Fatherland, Language, and Faith," establishing banks and schools to prevent the economic and cultural marginalization of Georgians under Russian rule.