APHG Exam Review

• Reference map: Displays boundaries, names, and identifiers of geographic areas, plus major cultural and physical features (e.g., Louisville, World maps).
• Thematic map: Focuses on a specific theme or topic (emphasized in Human Geography).
• Cartogram: Distorts land area to represent changes in value; area is proportional to the value being measured (e.g., population cartograms of China and India).
• Choropleth Map: Uses different shades to show value variations; darker shades indicate higher values.
• Dot Map: Uses dots to represent values; more dots indicate greater value.
• Graduated Symbol Map: Uses symbols to represent values; larger symbols indicate higher values.
• Isoline Maps: Connect places sharing a common value with lines.

Maps and Spatial Patterns

• Relative Space: Defined by human interactions with the environment.
• Absolute Measure: Quantitative (numerical) measure of distance/direction (e.g., 30°N, 25°W).
• Relative Measure: Qualitative (descriptive) measure comparing location to geographical features (e.g., near the Washington Monument).
• Spatial Patterns: Include uniform, clustering/clumped, dispersal/scattered, elevation, agglomeration (purposeful grouping), sinuous, random, and linear distributions.

Map Projections

• Map Projection: Transforms latitudes and longitudes from a sphere to a flat surface, inevitably causing distortion.
• Mercator Projection: Conformal; preserves angles and straight lines, especially for nautical use; distorts area, particularly at the poles.
• Robinson Projection: Compromise; minimizes distortion of continents, commonly used in schools and atlases; distorts poles.
• Peters Projection: Equal-area; accurately shows area of land masses; distorts oceans and land size.
• Polar Projection: Azimuthal equidistant; preserves distances from the center (poles); distorts parallels of latitude.
• Conformal Map Projection: Preserves shapes but may distort size.

Geospatial Technologies

• Geographic Information System (GIS): Collects, stores, analyzes, and presents georeferenced data (data tied to locations on Earth).
  • Used for mapping, analysis, and problem-solving in various fields.
• Remote Sensing: Gathers information via sensors on aircraft and satellites without physical contact.
  • Applications include natural resource management and hazard assessment.
• Satellite Navigational Systems: Provides geospatial positioning using satellites.
  • Examples: GLONASS (Russia), BeiDou (China), GPS (USA).
  • Uses latitude and longitude for location, velocity, time, and weather data.

Observations Of Spatial Information

• Field Observations: Observing people and situations in absolute space.
• Spatial Info Gained: architecture, land use, settlement patterns, climate effects.
• Media Reports: Communications from media companies about human interactions.
• Spatial Info Gained: land use, agricultural patterns, economic impacts.
• Travel Narratives: First-hand accounts from visitors.
• Spatial Info Gained: settlement patterns, transportation, land use, architecture.
• Policy Documents: Official guidelines and regulations.
• Spatial Info Gained: land use, settlement patterns, economic impacts.
• Personal Interviews: Explanations of observations or opinions.
• Spatial Info Gained: transportation, settlement patterns, economic impacts.
• Landscape Analysis: Study of land use and human-environment interactions.
• Spatial Info Gained: land use, agricultural practices, architecture, climate effects.
• Photographic Interpretation: Studying photographs for information.
• Spatial Info Gained: agricultural practices, land use, settlement patterns, architecture, transportation.

Power of Data

• Geospatial Data: Data with a geographic aspect referring to Earth positions.
• Processed and analyzed by geographical tools (Remote Sensing, GPS, GIS).
• Vector Data: Uses points, lines, and polygons to represent spatial features like cities and roads.
• Raster Data: Grid cells and pixels showing elevation, satellite images, or paper maps.
• Uses of Geospatial Data: Businesses use it for analysis, governments for censuses and drawing districts.

Spatial Concepts

• Absolute Space: Area with precisely measured dimensions.
  • Example: Formal cultural region.
• Relative Space: Created and defined by human interactions.
  • Can be represented by a network of linked nodes.
• Absolute Location: Fixed location using latitude and longitude.
  • Example: Louisville at $38.2527^\circ N, 85.7585^\circ W$
• Relative Location: Position of a place in relation to other places.
  • Example: Kentucky being north of Tennessee.
• Distance Decay: Tapering off of a process due to distance; varies by activity.
• Time-Space Compression: Reduced effect of distance due to transportation and communication advances.
• Place: Locality with specific physical and social characteristics; has absolute/relative location, site, and situation.

Theories of Human Environmental Interaction

• Determinism: Natural factors solely control human development.
  • Criticism: Oversimplifies cause-and-effect, can lead to cultural superiority claims.
• Possibilism: People adapt to and overcome environmental conditions through creativity.
  • Natural environment influences culture, posing challenges or facilitating success.

Scale of Analysis

• Scale: Relationship between map size & area represented.
  • Large scale: Less area, greater detail.
  • Small scale: Larger area, less detail.
• Scale of Analysis: Level at which data is displayed (global, regional, national, local).
  • Different scales can lead to different conclusions.

Regional Analysis

• Formal Region: Unified by cultural or physical characteristics.
  • Examples: religion, language, political boundaries, ethnicity.
• Functional Region: Defined by political, social, or economic activity with a node or center of activity.
  • Examples: transportation systems, service areas.
• Perceptual Region (Vernacular Region): Characterized by a population's sense of identity; boundaries are interpretive and less defined.

Distribution Influencing Factors

• Climate: Extreme areas have low population density.
• Water Bodies: River valleys promote human settlements due to resources.
• Landforms: Rugged terrain restricts population concentration.
• Politics: Stable governments have higher population density.
• Economy: Developed markets and skilled workers attract higher populations.
• Culture: Cultural practices and ethnic relationships influence settlement.
• History: Ancient settlements and colonialism impact population distribution.

Population Density

• Arithmetic Density: Number of people per unit of land; does not account for arable land.
  • $Arithmetic Density = \frac{total population}{total land area}$
• Physiological Density: Number of people per unit of arable land.
  • $Physiological Density = \frac{total population}{total arable land}$
• Agricultural Density: Number of farmers per unit of arable land.

Consequences of Population Distribution

• Population is mainly clustered in cities.
• High Rural-Urban Migration Leads To:
  • Social/Economic: aging rural population, slums/shanty towns, disease spread.
  • Environmental: strain on resources, pollution.

Population pyramids

• Population pyramids Def: a bar graph that shows the age and gender composition of a population
• Age cohorts: usually each a five-year age span, up to 100 (males and females are both represented from these groups)

Population Dynamics

• Population change influenced by fertility, mortality, and migration.
• Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Births per 1,000 people/year.
• Crude Death Rate (CDR): Deaths per 1,000 people/year.
• Immigration: Movement into a country.
• Emigration: Movement out of a country.
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children per woman.
• Infant Mortality Rate: Deaths under 1 year per 1,000 people.
• Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): Percentage of population growth excluding migration. $(RNI = \frac{CBR-CDR}{10})$
• Doubling Time: Time for a population to double. $Doubling Time = \frac{71}{RNI}$

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

• DTM shows population change over time, relating RNI changes to urbanization and industrialization.
• Describes high birth/death rates shifting to low birth/death rates.
• Stages: High Stationary, Early Expanding, Late Expanding, Low Stationary.

The Epidemiological Transition

• Shift from infectious to chronic diseases.
• Aligns with the DTM.
• LDCs- deaths due to infectious diseases
• MDC's- deaths due to chronic diseases

Malthusian Theory

• Malthus: Population growth leads to poverty and misery.
  • Positive Checks: Reduce population (famine, disease).
  • Preventative Checks: Prevent population growth (postponing marriage, less sex).
• Neo-Malthusians: World space and resources are limited; want strict population control.
• Boserup: Population growth spurs technologies for increased food production.

Population Policies

Pro-Natalist Policies Increase Birth Rates

When: DTM Stages 4-5
Problems:
-Difficult to adjust social norms
-Infertile mothers can't get benefits
Country Examples:
-France
-Germany
-Japan
-South Korea
-Russia

Anti-natalist Policies Decrease Birth Rates

When: DTM Stages 2-3
Problems:
-Imbalance of male to female ratio
-Difficult to change societal norms
Country Examples:
-China
-India
-Kenya
-Nigeria

Women and Population

• Education: Limited access for women in LDCs; increased education leads to decreased fertility rates and increased workforce participation.
• Fertility: Lower in MDCs due to education and career opportunities; higher in LDCs due to lack of education and family planning access.
• Economic Roles: Uneven participation, concentrated in service sectors; gender wage gap.
• Political Roles: Underrepresentation; gap lessening in MDCs with increased education.

Aging Population

• Decreasing death rates and birth rates lead to an aging population.
• Implies:
  • fewer in the work force
    -Governments implement pro-natalist policies to push to maintain the population ex. France, Russia

Causes Of Migration

• Migration: Relocation of people for long periods.
• Voluntary Migration: Migration by choice (combination of push and pull factors).
• Forced Migration: Migration not by choice.

Forced and Voluntary Migration

• Forced Migration: No choice in relocation, conditions of leaving, or destination.
  • Includes human trafficking, asylum seekers, refugees, and internally displaced persons (IDPs).
• Voluntary Migration: Chosen relocation; often follows Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration (primarily unmarried, around 25 years old).

Effects of Migration

• Unauthorized Immigrant: Enters/remains without legal permission.
• Brain Drain: Emigration of skilled workers.
• Transnationalism: Developing ties to multiple countries.
• Remittances: Money sent by immigrants to home countries.

Introduction to Culture

• Culture: Shared practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors transmitted by society.

  • Raisins in our trail mix are from the U.S., Chile, Argentina, South Africa, and Mexico
  • Tourism in Costa Rica exceeding 900 million people worldwide in 2007

• Cultural Traits: Food preferences, architecture, land use, language, and religion.
  Cultural Relativism vs. Ethnocentrism
  Cultural Relativism:
  The idea that a persons’ beliefs and activities should be understood in terms of that persons’ own culture

• A typical breakfast in Turkey can consist of fish soup and vegetables

Ethnocentrism:
The belief that your own culture is superior.

• An immigrant to America saying the French culture is much better than the American culture.

Homogenization Thesis:
Globalization makes cultures more alike.
Placelessness: Loss of unique characteristics of a place.
Ex. A subdivision where every house is the same

Americanization:
American culture being spread across the world.
Ex. Starbucks spreading worldwide

Polarization Thesis:
Globalization causes ethnocentrism and separation.
-Creates a heightened sense of sociocultural belonging
-Creates war and struggle over identity and differences
-Ex. 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Glocalization Thesis:
Global and local cultures interact and change due to the interaction.
Can occur because of neolocalism
Neolocalism: A renewed interest in keeping a places’ uniqueness
Ex. McDonald’s changing it’s menu india to not serve cow meat

Language on Cultural Landscapes

• Cultural Landscape: Imprint of past residents’ activities on the natural landscape.
  -Languages are used in landscapes according to what language the residents use to communicate.

• Purposes of Linguistic Landscapes: Send messages, discriminate, convey political messages, inform, advertise.

Patterns Related to Language

• Language: System of communication with agreed-upon meanings.
• Language Family: Languages sharing a common ancestor.
• Lingua Franca: Language used for communication between speakers of different languages.
• Inda-European -Family with largest number of speakers • Example: English & Hindi
• Sino-Tibetan- Has the language with largest amount of speakers (Mandarin Chinese) • Examples: Burmese & Mandarin
• Afro-Asiatic- Longest recorded history of any language family • Examples: Arabic & Hebrew

Patterns Related to Religion

• Universalizing religions have universal (thus the name) appeal and SEEK converts, this impacts their patterns because they typically grow at a faster rate and spread more geographically
• Ethnic religions appeal to a particular group in a specific area, this impacts their patterns because they usually only grow due to childbirths, they also only are seen outside their hearths due to relocation diffusion
  Buddhism- TFR of any of the major religions at 1.6 this is because some Buddhists practice celibacy.
  Muslims- TFR for Muslims is 2.9
  Christianity- TFR for Christians is 2.6.

THE SPREAD OF IDEAS: CULTURAL DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the spread of an epidemic, innovation, or idea throughout space and time.

• Absording barriers- an obstacle that completely stops an idea from diffusion
• Permeable barriers- obstacle which slows down diffusion without stopping
• Independent Invention- idea created without diffusion

1. Relocation Diffusion:

• Phenomena is spread across space
• Population of people = same
• Ex. Migration

1. Expansion Diffusion:

• Includes all diffusion except relocation
• Diffusion which results in a change of numbers (increasing)

1. Hierarchical Diffusion:

• Spreads in a rank-order
• From highest to lowest rank (this could be social ranks, or ranks based on size of population)
• This is how most of pop culture spreads
• Revers Hierarchical: Opposite of Hierarchical

1. Contagious Diffusion:

• Spreads randomly based on proximity
• Ex. Infectious epidemics, like H1N1 in 2009 (Pg.16)

1. Stimulus Diffusion:

• Spreading of idea prompts new ideas
• Ideas change based on the culture of an area
• Ex: McDonalds in India changes menu to suit the populations taste, these have no beef and are vegetarian

Historical Causes and Effects of Diffusion

• Diffusion: Spread of a phenomenon across space and time.
• Causes: Imperialism, colonialism, trade.
  *Interactions between and among cultural traits and larger global forces can lead to new forms of cultural expression; for example, creolization and lingua franca.
• Effects: Spread of language (English), diffusion of ideas and innovations, diffusion of religion.

Contemporary Causes and Effects of Diffusion

• Causes: Social media/Internet, transportation advancements, politics, supranationalism, economics, time-space convergence, globalization, urbanization.
• Effects: Cultural convergence (increasing use of English, loss of indigenous languages, placelessness), cultural divergence (different dialects).

Diffusion of Religion:

lndic Hearth Religion

• Hinduism - Ethnic religion

• Originated in the Punjab region of India

• Spread throughout India and Ganges River Valley mostly practiced inside of India because it is an ethnic religion

• Buddhism - Universalizing religion

• Originated in the Northern India

• Spread through and out of India and into Southeast Asia and china.
  Spread through contagious diffusion

• Sikhism - Universalizing religion

• Originated in the Punjab region of India

• Hasn't spread far from the Punjab region

Semitic Hearth Religion

Judaism (ethnic religion)

• Originated in Israel and Palestine
• •Spread out of Palestine and {srac( bul returnecl over lime c(Juse of Di.asnora: the scattering ol :1 group o{ ople through lorred mi1,raunn Iormalion ol hrael h:.ippened in •948 alter WWI!, wtu-n millions of Jv.s wre ki'ilel · lo<:atecl mosttv in the USA anc( Israel tcxi:l)'
  *
  Christianity (universalizing religion)
• Onginatecl in Palestine
• § pre.10 througltout Urope and i; now lounc
  l•l over the worltl · sJre;:id through comasious and I)ierarchical ditfu::,ion · most commor, in E:urolc, § outh Ancrlca, l
  ortf, Anrlca, Aus1rali;, ,and Sub·hara11 Af'ira.
  *
  Islam (universalizing religion)
• Originated in §aud1 rabta (lecce and (fecinaj
• §pread quickly lo the liddl East and
  ort11 ffiica· sprecl mos1ly thrnugh rontagisus ,liffusions-

IMPORTANI: Universalizing religions spread outside their hearth via Expansion and Relocation diffusion whereas ethnic religions are spread through Relocation Diffusion

# Effects of Diffusion

• Syncretism: the blending of traits from two different cultures to form a new idea. ex Voodoo, Our Lady of Guadalupe

  • Multiculturalism: the coexistence of more than one culture in one’s values or a society/environment. ex a student living in spanish speaking household, learning english in school, Amsterdam and Los Angeles are multicultural cities .

acculturation vs assimilation

-Acculturation: The process of borrowing traits or adapting to another culture while still keeping parts of the original culture. In acculturation the minority culture changes but is still able to retain unique cultural markers of language, food and customs

-Assimilation: The gradual loss of cultural traits, beliefs, and/or practices that distinguishes a cultural group from others; all original values replaced can be voluntary or forced

Example:
An immigrant changing their clothing to fit their new country, but still keeping other aspects of their original culture(Acculturation), a country forcing immigrants to stop speaking their original language and pick up another one and to dress certain ways (Assimilation)

Intro to Political Geography

Nation-State:

• A state where the territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity
• best examples today is Iceland & Japan

Multinational State:
-a sovereign state which is viewed as comprising two or more nations
Most countries are multinational states

Multi-state Nation:
A nation that stretches across state boundaries

Stateless Nation:
A nation that does not have control of their own state ex. the Korish people around the middle east

Autonomous Regions:
region in a country that has some degree of self-governance from the larger state
Indian Reservations in the United States function as autonomous regions

Influencers of Political Boundaries

Political boundaries are created and maintained by various influences
1. Imperialism

• Process of a state gaining direct/indirect control over another political societies affairs State does NOT gain physical territory Ex. China invaded Tibet in the 1950s and destroyed their culture -> States have NO control over land
  2. Colonialism
• A form of imperialism State takes possession of foreign territory, occupies, and governs it
  state controlled by imperial
  Ex. England gained control over India's territory from the 1700s to 1947• -> States have control over land

Types of Political Boundaries

*boundaries follow straight lines or sometimes lines of latitude and longitude

1. Relic: boundary that existed as an official boundary but does not anymore
2. Consequent (Cultural/Ethnographic): boundary between different cultures, languages, or religions
3. Geometric: boundary that follows straight lines or sometimes even lines of latitude and longitude
4. Superimposed: boundary imposed by an outside power or force,ignores existing cultures around the area ex. many African countries was imposed from outside power
5. Antecedent: boundary that existed before human settlement and (cultural) changes in landscape ex Western States in the U. S
6. Subsequent: boundary created during human settlement with changes in culture of landscape ex. Northeast U.S. (colonization)

The Function of Political boundaries- Land

Actions required to form a boundary:
1.Defining decide the geographic location of the boundary usually decided through conferences with neighboring states or through the UN
2.Delimiting
Record the boundary on a map
Record it on future maps
3.Demarcating
Mark the boundary in someway; physically
Place walls to mark border
4.Administering
Maintain the boundary
Can maintain by regulating trade with neighbors\ ")

Boundaries

Exclusive Economic Zones