AP United States Government and Politics: Study Guide

Key Exam Details

  • The AP U.S. Government and Politics exam assesses knowledge typically covered in a one-semester college introductory course.

  • The 3-hour exam includes 55 multiple-choice questions (50% of the exam) and 4 free-response questions (50% of the exam).

  • Exam topics:

    • Foundations of American Democracy: 15–22%

    • Civil Liberties and Civil Rights: 13–18%

    • Interactions Between Branches of Government: 25–36%

    • Political Participation: 20–27%

    • American Political Beliefs and Ideologies: 10–15%

Foundations of American Democracy

  • Approximately 15–22% of the AP exam questions cover this topic.

Types of Democracy

  • Direct Democracy: Citizens directly govern and make laws; considered chaotic and inefficient, especially in large populations; risks majority violating minority rights.

  • Participatory Democracy: Values broad-based public participation in governing; aims to keep government close to the people and their opinions.

  • Representative Democracy/Republicanism: More efficient system where citizens elect representatives who govern for them; allows quicker decisions by a smaller group; retains elements of public participation.

  • Elite Democracy/Elitism: Favors governance by the best-educated and most qualified members of society.

  • Majoritarian Democracy: Promotes majority rule; places power in the hands of the majority; values efficiency and decisive elections; critics argue it can lead to the violation of minority rights and zero-sum game politics.

  • Consensus Democracy: Promotes power-sharing across diverse groups; requires compromise; critics argue it is inefficient and creates decision-making hurdles.

Founding Documents

Declaration of Independence

  • Created by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.

  • Declares the British Colonies in North America as a free and independent country.

  • Authored by Thomas Jefferson, it relies on Natural Rights, Popular Sovereignty, and Social Contract Theory.

    • Natural Rights: Rights existing in a "state of nature." John Locke proposed three basic natural rights: life, liberty, and property. These are "negative" rights, restricting others from infringing upon them.

    • Popular Sovereignty: People are the highest power in society; government legitimacy comes from the consent of the governed.

    • Social Contract Theory: People consent to be governed in exchange for protections and public goods provided by the government, proposed by Thomas Hobbes.

Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union

  • The first constitution of the United States, created by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777.

  • Relied on John Locke’s theory of natural rights and very limited government roles.

  • Gave the country its name: The United States of America.

  • Confederation: A form of government where smaller government units (states) are sovereign, empowering the national government to perform limited tasks.

  • Structure under the Articles:

    • One branch: Congress

    • Equal representation from each state

    • Super-majority needed for passing laws

    • Congress can create currency, borrow money, declare war, raise an army, and establish foreign relations.

  • Failures of the Articles:

    • No executive branch

    • No national judiciary

    • No power to tax

    • No power to compel states to obey laws or contribute funding

    • Limited powers not "expressly delegated"

  • The national government lacked significant power, states failed to fulfill responsibilities, leading to economic depression and dysfunction.

Shays’ Rebellion

  • Uprising in western Massachusetts protesting economic conditions, high taxes, and debt collections.

  • Led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays.

  • Showed the weakness of the national government under the Articles, leading to calls for a constitutional convention.

The Constitution of the United States

  • A constitutional convention was called in the summer of 1787 to fix the Articles of Confederation.

  • The idea to fix the articles was quickly abandoned in favor of creating a whole new system of government.

  • Replaced the Confederation system with federalism, sharing powers between national and state governments, with the national government having more power.

  • Included proposals and compromises:

    • Virginia Plan: Proposed by large states, Congress with two houses based on representation.

    • New Jersey Plan: Proposed by small states, Congress with one house based on equal representation.

    • Three-Fifths Compromise: Free persons counted as a whole, slaves as three-fifths of a person; non-slaveholding states agreed not to regulate the slave trade prior to 1808.

    • Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Bicameral legislature with the House of Representatives based on population and the Senate based on equal representation.

  • Separation of powers: The national government was separated into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch.

  • Checks and balances: Each branch of government was given certain powers over the other branches.

  • The Constitution of the United States relies heavily on the concept of republicanism and much less on the idea of participatory or popular democracy.

  • The Electoral College places a buffer between the people and the powerful position of president of the United States.

  • The national government under the Constitution of the United States is one of enumerated and implied powers.

Constitutional Structure

  • The Constitution is separated into seven articles.

Article I

  • Created the Congress and legislative branch.

    • The House of Representatives is based on population, with each state guaranteed at least one representative. Currently, there are 435 seats.

    • Members must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen, and reside within the state they represent; they are elected every two years.

    • The Speaker of the House is the most powerful person in Congress, selected by its members.

    • The Census, required every 10 years, apportions representation based on population; each member represents approximately 700,000 people.

    • The House has the power of impeachment.

    • All bills raising taxes must originate in the House.

    • The Senate comprises two representatives from each state, now elected by the people (after the Seventeenth Amendment).

    • Senators serve six-year terms, with one-third up for election every two years; they must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen, and a resident of the state they represent.

    • The Vice President presides over the Senate but has no vote unless there is a tie.

    • The Senate tries all impeachments.

    • Enumerated powers of Congress:

    • tax

    • regulate commerce

    • regulate immigration

    • coin money and regulate its value

    • create the post office

    • create patents

    • create all courts below the Supreme Court

    • declare war

    • create the army

    • create the navy

    • directly govern Washington, DC

    • make all laws necessary and proper to execute their enumerated powers

Article II

  • Created the executive branch and the presidency.

    • The president and vice president are elected to four-year terms by the Electoral College.

    • Electoral votes are assigned to each state by adding the number of representatives and two senators.

    • To be president, one must be a natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old, and take a prescribed oath.

    • The president is the commander in chief of the army, Navy, and state militias, has the power to create treaties (ratified by the Senate), and appoint officials (confirmed by the Senate).

    • The president can pardon federal convictions and commute sentences (except in cases of impeachment).

    • The president, vice president, and all members of the executive and judicial branches can be impeached for treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

    • The president must give Congress an update on the state of the union periodically.

Article III

  • Created the judicial branch and the Supreme Court.

    • There are 93 District Courts, 13 Circuit Courts of Appeals, and one Supreme Court with eight Associate Justices and one Chief Justice.

    • The Supreme Court and lower courts have "judicial power," interpreted as the power of judicial review (Marbury v. Madison).

    • Federal judiciary appointees have lifetime terms.

    • The Supreme Court has original and appellate jurisdiction.

    • Article III, Section 3 defines treason.

Article IV

  • Expanded on federalism, noting what states and the national government owe to each other.

    • Full faith and credit shall be given to public records, acts, and judicial proceedings of each state.

    • Citizens are entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in every state.

    • Describes admitting new states but prohibits forming new states from existing ones without state legislature and congressional approval.

    • Guarantees each state a republican form of government.

Article V

  • Provided two methods for amending the Constitution: bills passed by two-thirds of each house of Congress or by a convention of the states.

    • An amendment requires a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of state legislatures.

    • Amendments can also be proposed by a constitutional convention petitioned by two-thirds of state legislatures, then ratified by three-fourths of state legislatures.

Article VI

  • Guaranteed the debt of the United States under the Articles of Confederation.

    • Section 2 states the Constitution, federal law, and treaties are the "supreme law of the land," superseding state law when federal laws are appropriately exercised.

Article VII

  • Set forth the ratification process, requiring 9 of 13 states to ratify the Constitution for it to take effect.

Ratification Campaign

  • Federalists (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay) supported ratification.

    • Authored The Federalist Papers, explaining the government's structure and function.

    • Federalist #10 (Madison): Republican government and separation of powers control government, preventing despotism.

    • Federalist #78 (Hamilton): The judicial branch is the least threatening because it only has judgment (no sword or purse).

  • Anti-Federalists (Brutus) opposed ratification, warning that the new national government was too powerful.

    • Favored government power kept in the states, closer to the people.

    • Advocated for subsidiarity: The lowest level of government capable should perform a task.

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

  • Around 13–18% of the AP exam questions will cover Civil Liberties and Civil Rights.

Bill of Rights

  • The first ten amendments to the Constitution.

  • Added as a political compromise between Federalists and some Anti-Federalists.

  • Enumerated and protected specific rights held by the people.

First Amendment

  • Protects multiple rights:

    • Free exercise of religion

    • Freedom of speech

    • Freedom of the press

    • Freedom of petition

    • Freedom of assembly

  • Contains the Establishment Clause, which created the separation of church and state.

Free Exercise Clause

  • Guarantees the right to follow the religion of one's choice.

  • Freedom to believe is absolute, but actions can be regulated.

  • Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): Government must prove a compelling interest and use the least restrictive means to limit free exercise (strict scrutiny).

Establishment Clause

  • Lemon v Kurtzman (1971): The "Lemon Test" requires that government interaction with a religious institution must have a secular legislative purpose, not inhibit or advance religion, and not create excessive entanglement between church and state.

  • Engel v. Vitale (1962): School-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause.

Freedom of Speech

  • Not absolute; the government can place some restrictions.

    • Time, place, and manner restrictions limit how the freedom of speech is exercised.

    • Content restrictions limit the substance of what is being said.

  • Schenk v United States (1919): Speech presenting a "clear and present danger" can be prohibited.

  • Tinker v. Des Moines (1969): Expressive acts are protected by the First Amendment, even for public school students.

Freedom of the Press

  • Near v Minnesota: Prohibited "prior restraint" of the press, or censorship, except in cases of national security and wartime.

  • New York Times v. United States (1971): Courts assume heavily against prior restraint/censorship.

Second Amendment

  • Protects citizens’ rights to keep and bear arms.

  • Interpreted by the Supreme Court to be an individual right, unrelated to service in a state militia/National Guard.

  • District of Columbia v Heller (2008): A generalized ban on handguns violated the Second Amendment.

  • McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Applied the Second Amendment to state and local laws.

Fourth Amendment

  • Protects citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures.

  • Generally requires a warrant based upon probable cause.

  • Allows certain exceptions.

Fourteenth Amendment

  • Passed during the Civil War.

  • Defines citizenship, protects due process, and guarantees equal protection under the law.

  • Used to apply the Bill of Rights to the states (Selective Incorporation Doctrine).

Due Process Clause

  • Protects citizens from arbitrary government action.

  • Used to support the right to privacy and expand other rights.

  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Defendants have a right to a lawyer under the Due Process Clause.

Right to Privacy

  • An unenumerated right.

  • Touches on many areas of law, including government searches, personal relationships, abortion, healthcare, and Internet usage.

  • Can be summarized as "the right to be left alone."

  • Roe v. Wade (1973): Extended the right to privacy to a woman's choice to end a pregnancy.

Equal Protection Clause

  • Protects citizens from unequal treatment under the law.

  • Unequal treatment based on race is viewed as highly suspicious.

  • Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954): Racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.

  • Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978): Affirmative action policies are permissible, but race cannot be the primary factor in college admissions.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

  • Extended civil rights and equal treatment to the private sector.

  • Prohibits discrimination based on race and other factors in public accommodations.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

  • Prohibits discrimination in voting.

  • Banned practices such as literacy tests.

  • Originally placed states with a history of voting rights violations under "pre-clearance."

Interactions Between Branches of Government

  • Anywhere from 25‒36% of AP exam questions will cover this topic.

Federalism

  • Government power is divided between the federal government and state governments.

    • **Dual Federalism (