Upshar Readings 2

 A. “Persian Culture and Religion” (44-46)—Be able to describe the features of Zoroastriansim: Ahura Mazda and Ahriman; goodness vs. evil; struggle; judgment; affiliation with Persian rulers. 

Zoroastrianism, the religion of the Persian Empire, was a novel faith centered on the idea that the world was ruled by a single supreme being, Ahura Mazda ("wise lord" ), who represented goodness, light, and truth. Ahura Mazda was opposed by another supernatural power, Ahriman, who represented darkness and evil. The two were locked in a universal struggle, which Ahura Mazda was destined to win. Zoroastrianism was a strongly ethical religion, teaching that men and women possessed free will and were expected to avoid sin and abide by divine laws. Each person's choices were important in the cosmic struggle. The faith included a notion of a future judgment day, where all human beings, living and dead, would be consigned to heaven or hell. The supreme autocrat, King Darius, was considered the earthly viceroy of Ahura Mazda and served as a devotee and example to his people.

 B. “The Defining Characteristics of Great Empires” (151-53)—know the seven characteristics, stated at the beginning of each paragraph on pp. 151-53

The Agricultural Revolution, beginning after about 10,000 B.C.E. in regions like the Fertile Crescent and Egypt, was a key precondition for civilization. This achievement allowed humans to acquire food with much greater efficiency and regularity and in greater quantities than before. Consequently, larger groups could live from the produce of less land, leading to increased population and density. The resulting food surplus allowed some people to engage in specialized occupations, and trade developed as a result. Historians increasingly define civilization in terms of urbanization. Early civilizations manifested similar urban characteristics: new and specialized vocations, advances in the arts and technology, and complex political and cultural institutions. Physically, a city is functionally distinct from the countryside, often with defensive walls, and includes palaces, temples, residences, and markets. Socially, most early cities included people of distinct social classes and occupational groups. Another approach to defining civilization is to link it with writing. Some professionals contend that a culture must have a system of writing to be termed civilized.

 C. “The Father: Philip” and “The Mother: Olympias” (157-158)—how did Philip reform the army? Know the description of Olympias and her relationship with Alexander.

How Philip reformed the army:

Philip first reformed the army, making it fully professional, with the highest standards of discipline and elite units called companions. He increased its size to more than 25,000 men diversified among infantry, light-armed skirmishers, archers, slingers, and cavalry. He also introduced a new, thirteen-foot thrusting spear, better siege machinery, and more effective infantry tactics.

Olympias description and relationship with Alexander:

Olympias was a semibarbaric Epirote and an enthusiastic devotee of Dionysus, whose rites involved wild dancing on the mountainsides. She was overly sensitive to any slight to her honor and fiercely determined to avenge any such slight. Olympias enjoyed much closer ties to her son than did Philip, who was constantly away campaigning. She and her kinfolk were Alexander's first teachers. In the final rift between Olympias and Philip, Alexander sided with his mother. Alexander's future conception of himself as a latter-day Greek mythological hero was nourished by his mother's insistence that his true father was Zeus, not Philip. Alexander's extremely forceful and compelling personality owed as much to Olympias as to Philip.

 D. “Escapism and Individualism in Hellenistic Culture” (165-67)—know founders of Stoicism and Epicureanism and the major tenets of each philosophy 

D. Escapism and Individualism in Hellenistic Culture (165-67):

Stoicism - Founder: Zeno of Citium (335-263 B.C.E.) Major tenets: First, goodness is based on knowledge. Only the wise person is really virtuous. Second, the truly wise person lives in harmony with nature by means of his or her reason, which is part of the divine, universal reason governing the natural world. Third, the only good is harmony with nature. External "accidents" like sickness, pain, and death cannot harm the truly good person.

Epicureanism - Founder: Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.) Major tenets: First, nothing exists but atoms and void. The soul, like all else, is material and disintegrates like the body; thus it cannot suffer after death. Second, the only good in this life is pleasure, a perfect equilibrium or inner tranquillity, defined as the absence of pain or stress. Third, all our actions should be directed toward the minimizing of pain, that is, toward pleasure.

 E. “Women’s Rights: A Test Case in Republican Rome” (171-72) why does Cato oppose granting luxuries to women and why does Lucius Valerius support it?

Why Cato opposes granting luxuries to women:

Cato argues ancestors wanted women under the authority of parents, brothers, and husbands, not conducting business without a guardian. He warns against giving reins to their unbridled nature and unmastered creature. He states they want freedom, nay license, in all things, and warns that as soon as they begin to be your equals, they will have become your superiors.

Why Lucius Valerius supports repeal:

Lucius Valerius points out women historically helped Rome—stopping battles, turning away forces, ransoming Rome from Gauls, and donating money when the treasury had no funds. He argues women should not be excluded from fruits of peace. Since women cannot partake of magistracies, priesthoods, triumphs, or spoils of war, elegance, finery, and beautiful clothes are women's badges in which they find joy and take pride. He questions why men may use purple on clothes but not allow women purple cloaks.

 F. “The Han Dynasty, 202 BCE-220 CE” (200-205)—What reforms did emperor Han Kao-tsu bring about following the Ch’in dynasty? (200-201)

Kao-tsu retained the basic structure of the Ch'in government but moderated the cruel Ch'in penal code, lifted the bar against intellectual activities, and lightened taxes from two-thirds of the farmer's crop under Ch'in to one-fifteenth. To give the people a chance to rest and recover from years of war, Kao-tsu pursued a foreign policy of conciliation and appeasement toward the powerful northern nomads called Hsiung-nu.

 G. “The Han Dynasty” (202) Know the story of Chang Ch’ien and his significance to China’s Silk Road trade; role of Hsiung-nu and Yueh-Chih.

In 138 B.C.E., Emperor Wu sent a young courtier named Chang Ch'ien to find the Yueh-chih and offer them an alliance against the Hsiung-nu. Chang's journey was one of the most daring travel epics in antiquity. To reach the Yueh-chih, he had to cross Hsiung-nu territory; he was captured, given a Hsiung-nu wife, and made to settle among them. Chang escaped after ten years, continued his quest, and finally found the Yueh-chih, but they had no desire to cross swords with the Hsiung-nu again. En route home, Chang was recaptured by the Hsiung-nu, and again escaped, finally returning to Changan in 126, with only two of his original staff of a hundred.

Although he failed in his primary assignment, Chang Ch'ien's account of his travels and his later diplomatic mission to central Asia opened the Chinese to new horizons, peoples, cultures, and products. His information brought about further explorations and trade by land and sea between China, India, Persia, and other lands.

Role of Hsiung-nu and Yueh-chih:

The Hsiung-nu had earlier defeated the Yueh-chih, an Indo-European nomadic group north of China. Some fled south into Chinese territory, others westward to Bactria, in modern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan.

 H. “Han Government” (206-208)—civil service; know details about the civil service

Han government was administered by a professional civil service based on education, merit, and ability, rather than hereditary nobles. The first requirement for aspiring officials was education. Books were expensive, copied on silk, wood, or bamboo slips. The invention of paper in the first century C.E. helped poor boys receive education.

Local officials annually recommended educated young men of good moral character to the capital for written and oral exams. Those who passed received posts and served on probation for one year before permanent appointments. Every sixth day was a day of rest. Leaves were granted for illness and for funeral and mourning rites.

In 124 B.C.E., a national university was established to prepare young men in Confucian classics for civil service. Enrollment was based on geographic quota; from original 50 students, it grew to 30,000 by the second century.

Every third year officials received efficiency ratings and were promoted, demoted, transferred, or dismissed accordingly. Aged officials received pensions on retirement. A law of avoidance forbade men from serving in their home area to ensure national rotation and prevent building power bases that might challenge the throne.

 I. “The Triumph of Christianity” (231-234)—know the 4 reasons for Christianity’s success (p. 231)

Simple - demanded absolute allegiance to one creed, offering permanent values when political and spiritual absolutes were disappearing

Equalitarian - open to all, from lowest slave to emperor; every soul could be saved regardless of ethnic origin or social status

Hope of better life - promised eternal bliss in heaven; martyrs' courage lent credence to this promise

Satisfied need to belong - founded on "Love thy neighbor"; community shared values, cared for indigent and sick, supported orphans and widows, gave self-respect to urban poor

 J. “Religious and Cultural Developments in Early Western Europe” (240-44)—identify Charlemagne (p. 238); How did the Carolingians, especially Charlemagne, support the Christian church (pp. 242-43)

Identify Charlemagne (p. 238):

Charlemagne (or Charles the Great; reigned 768-814) was crowned Emperor of Rome by the pope on Christmas Day in the year 800, using the Roman titles emperor and Augustus, together with Byzantine procedures of patriarchal coronation and popular acclamation.

How did the Carolingians, especially Charlemagne, support the Christian church (pp. 242-43):

Charlemagne returned the pope to Rome and restored him to power after his enemies had hounded him from the city. The Carolingian rulers founded new bishoprics, restored old bishoprics, defended Christian theology against its challengers, founded monasteries and restored them to compliance with the Benedictine rule. The monasteries provided scribes and advisers for royal service. Charlemagne presented a broadly conceived program for peacefully introducing Christianity among the pagan Saxons and Slavs. He promoted both classical and Christian education, mandating a teacher of grammar for each cathedral and a teacher of theology for each archbishop's cathedral. Monastic schools concentrated on the liberal arts, and a special palace school was established for educating the sons of Frankish nobles.

III. Canvas Primary Source Readings  (focus on specific readings from the dates below)

 **Familiarize yourself with the content of these readings.

 **Also be able to identify or interpret a source if it appears on the exam.

1. Daniel 6

Daniel was raised to high office under King Darius the Mede. Jealous officials, unable to find any corruption or fault in Daniel, tricked Darius into issuing a decree that for thirty days no one could pray to any god or man except the king—violators would be thrown into the lions' den. The decree was irrevocable according to Medo-Persian law. Daniel continued praying three times daily with his windows open toward Jerusalem, as was his custom. The officials reported him, and though Darius was distressed and tried all day to save Daniel, he was forced to have him thrown into the den. The king sealed the den with his signet ring, spent the night fasting without sleep, and rushed to the den at dawn. Daniel told the king God had sent an angel to shut the lions' mouths because he was found blameless. Daniel was lifted out unharmed, while his accusers and their families were thrown in and killed instantly. Darius issued a decree that all people must fear the God of Daniel, "for he is the living God and he endures forever."

2. Persian Law

Herodotus (c. 430 BCE): Cambyses wanted to marry his sister. Royal judges said they found no law allowing it, but found a law that the Persian king could do whatever he pleased. So he married his sister without breaking the law.

Book of Esther (c. 300 BCE): King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) ordered Queen Vashti to appear before him wearing her crown. She refused. He consulted his legal advisers, who said her disobedience would cause all women to disrespect their husbands. The king issued an irrevocable decree banishing Vashti and declaring every man should be lord in his own home.

Main point: Both show Persian kings had absolute power but still consulted legal advisers and issued formal laws/decrees.

3. Plutarch’s Life of Alexander; 

Plutarch (Roman historian, 1st century CE) wrote about Alexander the Great:

Bucephalus story: Young Alexander observed that a wild, unmanageable horse was frightened by its own shadow. He turned the horse toward the sun, calmed it, and successfully rode it. Philip said, "Seek another kingdom, my son, Macedonia is too small for thee."

Education: Philip hired Aristotle to teach Alexander. Philip rebuilt Aristotle's hometown as payment.

Early reign: Alexander became king at 20. He faced rebellion and unrest. He marched quickly to the Danube, won a major battle (lost only 34 men vs. 22,500 barbarians), and sent spoils to Greece with inscription crediting himself and "the Greeks (excepting the Lacedaemonians)" for victories over Persians.

Main point: Shows Alexander's intelligence, courage, quick action, and skill at managing both horses and kingdoms.

4. Arrian, “Speech of Alexander the Great”

Alexander addresses his troops who are reluctant to continue campaigning. He reminds them of all they've conquered—Ionia, Egypt, Persia, Media, Babylon, territories beyond the Caspian Gates, and lands up to the Indus River. He argues only a small area remains to the Ganges and Eastern Ocean, which connects to other seas, giving them an empire with no boundaries but God's.

He warns that turning back now leaves unconquered warlike peoples who might revolt, making all their efforts fruitless. He appeals to their desire for glory, comparing himself to Heracles and Dionysus who achieved godhood through their labors. He emphasizes they've shared labor and danger equally, and conquered territory belongs to them. The treasure passes into their hands, and governors are chosen from their ranks.

He promises that when Asia is conquered, their hopes for riches and power will be surpassed. Those who wish to return home will be allowed to go, but those who stay will be envied by those who leave.

5. Cicero’s “The Roman Candidate”

Quintus Cicero advises his brother Marcus, a "novus homo" (no noble ancestry), on running for consulship in Rome. He tells him to compensate for lack of noble birth with brilliant oratory, cultivate friends of every class (senators, equites, ex-consuls, trade guilds, municipal leaders), canvas all of Italy systematically, and maximize daily visibility through morning callers, Forum escorts, and campaign attendants. Marcus should remind supporters this is the time to show gratitude and should demand that those he defended in court now repay him with their service and support.

6. Plutarch’s portrait of Cleopatra

Plutarch describes Cleopatra as captivating Antony through her charm and intelligence rather than extraordinary beauty. He writes that "her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but converse with her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness of her discourse and the character which was somehow diffused about her behavior towards others, had something stimulating about it." She was multilingual and could "readily turn to whatever language she pleased." Cleopatra kept Antony "in constant tutelage" with flattery, contributing "some fresh delight and charm to Antony's hours of seriousness or mirth" and releasing him "neither night nor day." She played dice with him, drank with him, hunted with him, and even dressed as a servant to go on nighttime pranks through Alexandria. When Antony went fishing and caught nothing, she had divers secretly attach fish to his hook; when he discovered the trick, she had a salted fish from Pontus attached instead, then told him his game was "cities, provinces, and kingdoms," not fish. Plutarch portrays her as politically shrewd, personally compelling, and able to manipulate Antony through entertainment and flattery.

7. Acts 19

Paul arrived in Ephesus and found 12 disciples who only knew John the Baptist's baptism. He baptized them in Jesus' name, and they received the Holy Spirit. Paul taught in the synagogue for three months, then in the hall of Tyrannus for two years, where all residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord. God performed unusual miracles through Paul—handkerchiefs touched to his body healed the sick and cast out demons. Seven sons of Sceva, Jewish exorcists, tried to use Jesus' name to cast out demons, but the demon overpowered them, and they fled naked and wounded. When Ephesians heard this, fear fell on them, and many who practiced magic burned their books worth 50,000 pieces of silver. A silversmith named Demetrius, whose business making shrines of Artemis was threatened by Paul's ministry, stirred up a riot. A mob filled the theater shouting "Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!" for two hours. The town clerk calmed the crowd and told them to use proper legal channels for complaints. Paul then left for Macedonia. 

8.  Tacitus’ description of Nero’s persecution

Tacitus describes Nero's persecution of Christians after the catastrophic fire of Rome in 64 CE. To dispel rumors that he ordered the fire, Nero blamed Christians, who were already unpopular for their "abominations" and "hatred of the human race." First, those who admitted their faith were seized, then a vast multitude were convicted. They were executed brutally—killed by dogs, nailed to crosses, or set aflame as nighttime lamps in Nero's gardens during Circus games. Though Christians were viewed as guilty criminals, people began to pity them because they were destroyed for Nero's cruelty rather than the public good. This is one of the first non-Christian sources mentioning Christianity.

9. Minucius Felix’s “The Ritual Cannibalism Charge Against the Christians;” 

Minucius Felix records pagan Roman accusations against Christians in the 2nd-3rd century. Romans claimed Christians had secret marks, loved each other before meeting, called each other "brother" and "sister" to make incest seem holy, and practiced a "religion of lust." Accusations included worshiping a donkey's head, worshiping their priest's genitals, and ritual cannibalism—supposedly forcing initiates to kill a baby hidden under flour, then drinking its blood and eating its flesh to bind them to silence. These charges likely stemmed from misunderstandings of the Christian Eucharist. Hippolytus then provides the actual early Christian liturgy from the 3rd century, showing the real Eucharist involved bread and wine, with prayers thanking God through Jesus Christ, commemorating his death and resurrection, and asking the Holy Spirit to bless the offering—nothing resembling the horrific accusations.

10. “Certificate of Having Sacrificed to the Gods”

Under Emperor Decius (249-251 CE), the first empire-wide systematic persecution of Christians occurred. All citizens were required to sacrifice to pagan gods on behalf of the emperor to avoid persecution. Those who complied received a Certificate of Sacrifice proving they had performed the ritual. The document shows Aurelius Diogenes, age 72, certifying he sacrificed, poured drink offerings, and tasted the sacrifices in the presence of commissioners. A witness certified seeing him sacrifice. This certificate was literally a "ticket of life"—without it, Christians faced death. Many believers and entire faith communities died rather than sacrifice to pagan gods.

11. Gregory of Nyssa’s Life of Macrina; Evagrius’ St. Simeon Stylites.

This is a scholarly introduction to a Syriac biography of St. Simeon Stylites (d. 459 CE), who lived atop a pillar in Syria. The text compares two manuscript versions—Bedjan's (longer) and Assemani's (shorter)—concluding Bedjan's is the original. The longer version has better logical order, includes seven additional sections (introduction, miracle stories, closing paragraph), and shows consistent style throughout. The shorter version appears to be written from memory by two men, Simeon bar Apollon and Bar Hatar, in 473 CE, who reproduced an abridged version they knew but rearranged incidents haphazardly and omitted connecting details. The original biography was likely written shortly after Simeon's death in 459 CE by one of his disciples. The text is important for studying classical Syriac language and early Christian monasticism.

12. Accounts of Viking raids

Three sources describe Viking (Northmen) raids on Frankland (843-912). The Annals of St. Bertin chronicle repeated attacks: Northmen killed bishops and clergy, pillaged cities from Nantes to Paris, burned Tours and the church of St. Martin, and extracted tribute payments (Charles the Bald paid 7,000 livres to stop one attack). Abbo's poem describes the 885 siege of Paris with 700 Viking ships, where Count Odo defended the city against fierce assault while Emperor Charles eventually paid 700 pounds of silver for their withdrawal. The Chronicle of St. Denis tells how Viking leader Rollo refused to kiss King Charles's foot when receiving Normandy, having his warrior do it instead (causing the king to tumble backwards). In 912, Rollo converted to Christianity, was baptized, married the king's daughter, and transformed into a legitimate ruler who rebuilt churches, established laws, and governed peacefully—marking the Vikings' transition from raiders to settlers.

13. Feudal oaths

Two oaths illustrate feudal loyalty relationships. The Anglo-Saxon oath pledges to be true and faithful to a lord, love what he loves and shun what he shuns according to God's laws, doing nothing displeasing to him, on condition the lord treats the vassal fairly and keeps their agreement. The 7th-century Frankish oath shows acceptance of an antrustion (trusted warrior) who swears fidelity to the king in his palace with his arms; in return, the king grants protection and decrees anyone who kills him owes a wergild (blood payment) of 600 shillings. Both demonstrate reciprocal obligations between lord and vassal—loyalty in exchange for protection and fair treatment.