Progressive Era & Foreign Policy

Alfred Thayer Mahan’s The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890)

Facts: Mahan was a US naval officer and historian who argued that naval power was essential for national strength. In his book, he argued that national greatness and global power were linked to naval strength. He emphasized that countries with strong navies and oversea bases would dominate world affairs.

Context: During the late 1800s, powerful nations were competing for overseas territories (imperialism). The US was debating whether to expand beyond its borders. Mahan’s ideas encouraged the US to build a modern navy and establish naval bases worldwide. 

Significance: Mahan’s book influenced US leaders to expand naval power, leading to the construction of battleships and the establishment of overseas naval bases (such as Hawaii and the Philippines). His ideas also inspired other world powers, like Britain, Germany, and Japan, contributing to the rise of global militarism. 

Hawaii Annexation (1898)

Facts: Hawaii was an independent kingdom until American businessmen and sugar planters, with the help of US Marines, overthrew Queen Lili’uokalani in 1893. The US officially annexed Hawaii in 1898, turning it into a US territory.

Context: Hawaii was strategically important because of its location in the Pacific Ocean. The US wanted to use it as a naval base and refueling stations for ships. American sugar plantation owners also wanted to avoid paying tariffs on Hawaiian sugar by becoming part of the US. 

Significance: The annexation showed America's growing imperialism and willingness to overthrow foreign governments for economic and strategic gain. Hawaii later became a key military base (Pearl Harbor) and eventually the 50th US State in 1959.

Yellow Journalism (1890s)

Facts: Yellow journalism refers to exaggerated and sensationalized news stories designed to attract readers and influence public opinion. Newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal) and Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) published dramatic and often  misleading reports. 

Context: In the 1890s, Cuba was fighting for independence from Spain, and the US was debating whether to intervene. Newspapers used exaggerated stories-often with little evidence-to portray the Spanish as brutal oppressors and push the US towards war.

Significance: Yellow journalism played a major role in stirring up public anger against Spain, ultimately helping to push the US into the Spanish-American War. This showed how media could shape public opinion and influence foreign policy.

“Remember the Maine” (1898)

Facts: The USS Maine was a US battleship stationed in Havana Harbor, Cuba. On February 15, 1898, it exploded, killing 260 American sailors. Without clear evidence, the newspapers blamed Spain, leading to the war cry: “Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!”

Context: At the time, Cuba was fighting for independence from Spain. The US was considering intervention, and the explosion of the Maine increased American anger towards Spain. Later investigations suggested the explosion might have been an accident, but at the time, people demanded war.

Significance: This incident led directly to the Spanish-American War. It showed how propaganda and public opinion could pressure the US government into taking military action.

“Splendid Little War” (1898)

Facts: US Secretary of State John Hay described the Spanish-American War as a “splendid little war” because it was short (only four months), resulted in a decisive US victory, and had relatively few American casualties. 

Context: The war began after the sinking of the Maine and intense pressure from yellow journalism. The US fought Spain in Cuba and the Philippines, defeating them quickly. 

Significance: This war marked the US’s emergance as a world power. The US gained control of former Spanish territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, showing America’s shift towards imperialism. 

Rough Riders (1898)

Facts: The Rough Riders were a volunteer cavalry unit led by president Theodore Roosevelt. They became famous for their charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba during the Spanish American War.

Context: The US military was relatively unprepared for war, so Roosevelt gathered a diverse group of cowboys, miners, and college athletes to form the Rough Riders. They played a crucial role in the Battle of San Juan Hill, helping secure a victory in Cuba.

Significance: Their success made Roosevelt a national hero, helping him later become vice president and eventually president. The Rough Riders symbolized American courage and rugged individualism.

“Open Door” Policy (1899-1900)

Facts: The US issued the Open Door Policy to ensure equal trading rights in China and prevent any one country from dominating global trade.

Context: At the time, European countries and Japan were carving China into spheres of influence, meaning they controlled trade in different regions. The US had no official colony inside of China but wanted to trade freely.

Significance: The Open Door Policy helped maintain US access to Chinese markets. It also showed that the US was becoming more involved in global affairs, especially in Asia.

Big Stick Diplomacy (early 1900s)

Facts: President Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy was based on the idea of “speak softly and carry a big stick.” This meant negotiating peacefully but backing up diplomacy with military strength.

Context: Roosevelt used Big Stick diplomacy in Latin America, especially when dealing with the Panama Canal and the Roosevelt Corollary.

Significance: This policy expanded US intervention in Latin America leading to resentment among Latin American nations.

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)

Facts: Roosevelt declared that the US had the right to intervene in Latin America to maintain stability and keep European powers out.

Context: Some Latin American countries owed large debts to European nations. Roosevelt feared that European countries would use debt collection as an excuse to take over Latin American nations.

Significance: This policy made the US the “policeman”of the Western Hemisphere, justifying future interventions in Latin America.

Panama Canal (1904-1914)

Facts: The US helped Panama gain independence from Columbia in 1903, then built the Panama Canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, making trade and military movement faster.

Context: The canal was important for global trade and US naval power. It reduced the time needed for ships to travel between oceans.

Significance: The canal strengthened US influence in Latin America but also led to tensions because many Latin Americans saw the US as a bully interfering in their affairs.

Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)

Facts: The Treaty of Portsmouth ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), a conflict between Russia and Japan over control of Korea and Manchuria. President Theodore Roosevelt mediated the treaty, helping both sides reach a peace agreement.

Context: Japan had won major battles, both nations were economically exhausted. Roosevelt saw an opportunity to assert US influence in global affairs. The treaty was signed in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

Significance: The treaty increased the US involvement in Asian politics and established Roosevelt as a key diplomatic leader, earning him the Nobel Peace prize. However, it left Japan feeling it deserved more, contributing to later tensions between the US and Japan.

Great White Fleet (1907-1909)

Facts: The Great White Fleet was a group of 16 US battleships sent on a world tour by President Roosevelt to showcase American naval power.

Context: The US had recently expanded its navy following Mahan’s ideas on sea power. The fleet was painted white (symbolizing peace) and traveled to Asia, Europe, and South America as a demonstration of US strength. 

Significance: The fleet signaled America’s rise as a global military power. It also sent a message to Japan that the US was prepared for war if necessary, following tensions after the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905.

Dollar Diplomacy (1909-1913)

Facts: President William Howard Taft encouraged American businessmen to invest in foreign economies, particularly in Latin America and China, to increase US influence.

Context: Instead of using military force like Roosevelt, Taft believed economic investment could achieve the same goals. The US supported American companies in taking control of key industries, like railroads in Nicaragua.

Significance: This policy expanded American economic imperialism, but it often led to US interventions to protect business interests. Many Latin Americans resented US involvement. 

Moral Diplomacy (1913-1921)

Facts: President Woodrow Wilson rejected imperialism and promoted the idea that the US should support democracies and human rights worldwide.

Context: Wilson wanted to distance the US from past interventionist policies like Big Stick and Dollar Diplomacy. However he still sent US troops to Latin America where he felt governments were not democratic, such as Mexico and Hawaii.

Significance: Moral diplomacy showed Wilson’s belief in spreading democracy, but it also led to US military actions in Latin America, contradicting its ideals.

Pancho Villa (1916-1917)

Facts: Pancho Villa was a Mexican revolutionary leader who opposed the US-backed Mexican government. In 1916, he raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17 Americans.

Context: The US had supported Venustiano Carranza as Mexico’s president, but Villa saw him as a traitor to the revolution. In response to the attack, Wilson sent General John J Pershing and US troops into Mexico to capture Villa (they never did).

Significance: The failed “Punitive Expedition” showed the limits of US military intervention. It also worsened US-Mexico relations but was soon overshadowed by America’s entry into World War I.

The Lusitania/ Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

Facts: In 1915, a German U-boat (submarine) sank the British passenger ship, Lusitania, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans. Germany used unrestricted submarine warfare, attacking all ships near Britain, including those of neutral countries.

Context: World War I had started in 1914, and Germany was trying to block Britain from getting supplies. The US was neutral, but the sinking of the Lusitania angered many Americans and pushed the US closer to war.

Significance: Although the US didn’t immediately enter the war, the Lusitania was a turning point in public opinion. When Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917, the US declared war on Germany.

Zimmerman Telegram (January 1917)

Facts: A secret message from Germany to Mexico, intercepted by Britain, in which Germany promised Mexico that if it joined the war against the US, Mexico would regain Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.

Context: Germany wanted to distract the US and keep it from joining World War I. When Britain gave the telegram to Wilson, American public outrage grew.

Significance: The telegram was a major factor in the US decision to enter the war in April 1917. It increased anti-German sentiment and showed how secret diplomacy could drag countries into war.

American Expeditionary Force (1917-1918)

Facts: The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) was the US military force sent to fight in Europe in World War I. It was led by General John J Purshing.

Context: Before the US entered the war, the Allies (Britain and France) were struggling against Germany. The arrival of over 2 million US troops helped turn the tide of the war.

Significance: The AEF’s success in battles like the Meuse-Argonne Offensive helped force Germany to surrender in 1918. It marked the first time the US played a major role in a global war.

Selective Service Act (1917)

Facts: This law created a military draft, requiring American men aged 21-30 (later expanded to 18-45) to register for military service during World War I.

Context: The US had a small standing army, so drafting soldiers was necessary for the war effort. By the end of the war, 2.8 million men were drafted.

Significance: The draft showed the US government’s ability to mobilize for war and increased federal power. It also sparked opposition from pacifists and labor activists, leading to debates over individual rights.

War Industries Board (1917)

Facts: The War Industries Board (WIB) was a US government agency created during World War I to coordinate the production of war materials and ensure the military had enough supplies.

Context: The US needed to mobilize its economy after entering the war in 1917. The WIB, led by Bernard Baruch, controlled raw materials, regulated prices, and encouraged businessmen to increase production.

Significance: The WIB expanded power over the economy and demonstrated how the government could control industries during wartime. It set a precedent for future wartime economic management.