Notes on 2.1–2.2: Culture, Socialisation, Structure/Agency, Social Control, and Deviance

Unit 2.1 Culture

  • Definition: Socialisation is the process of learning to behave in ways that are culturally acceptable to society. This part links socialisation to culture and uses global examples.
  • Key perspective: Abdullahi An-Na'im (1992) argues that the impact of culture and socialisation on human behaviour is powerful and embedded in identity.
  • Distinctions:
    • Culture vs. society: Culture is the shared way of life (values, beliefs, norms, language, arts, cuisine, etc.) while society is the group of people and the formal/informal institutions they create (family, peer groups, education, government, religion, workplace, media, and new media like the internet and social platforms).
    • Culture shapes how societies work in practice by providing norms and values that guide behaviour in social institutions.
  • Culture (Jencks, 1993) definition: "the whole way of life of a society" including knowledge, beliefs, language, values, norms, customs, traditions, mores, cuisine, arts, and music.
  • Interdependence of culture and society (Giddens, 1997): culture cannot exist without society; self-consciousness and identity are formed within culture and social interaction.
  • Society: A group living together in an ordered community; consists of formal and informal institutions created through interaction (marriage/family, peer group, education, government/state, religion, workplace, media, and digital media).
  • Culture vs. practice: Culture provides the values and norms that guide behaviour within social contexts.
  • Beliefs
    • Beliefs are strong convictions held by individuals or groups, often without evidence.
    • Dominant beliefs vary across societies and can originate in religion, ideology, or historical tradition (e.g., divine right of kings; emperor in Japan had divine status until 1945).
  • Language
    • Language is central to culture and underpins communication; described as the social glue that binds society.
    • Function: language promotes belonging to a social group; example: Hindi as government language in India to bind disparate cultures.
    • Carroll (2009): "language is to humans, what water is to fish"; societies cannot exist without language.
  • Symbolic cultural artefacts
    • Artefacts: material objects with shared symbolic meaning (flags, dress, monuments).
    • Cultural products: music, sport, cuisine; examples: sushi (Japan), burgers (USA), pizza (Italy), dhal (India).
    • Sport as cultural artefact: national sports events can reflect cultural identities and even ‘cultural wars’ (James, 1963) linking cricket to colonial history and imperialism; Australians, Pakistanis, Sri Lankans, Indians, and African‑Caribbean communities derive cultural satisfaction from cricket.
  • High culture
    • Definition: Cultural products valued by educated elites (art, theatre, opera, ballet, classical music).
    • Examples: Shakespeare in the English-speaking world; Kabuki (Japan) as high culture due to its imperial court history and artistry.
    • Activity prompts: similarities/differences between Shakespeare and TV soaps like The Simpsons; Kabuki vs. Western drama traditions.
  • Mass or popular culture
    • Mass-produced cultural products for mass audiences (TV, films, pop music, social media).
    • Criticisms: often seen as lacking high aesthetic value; accused of being superficial or immoral or harmful to children.
  • Folk culture
    • Definition: Culture of ordinary people, especially in pre-industrial societies; self-created and reflecting everyday life.
    • Examples: national costumes, folk art, traditional songs/dances/stories; Strinati notes folk culture can be undervalued yet worthy for its authenticity and ties to national identity.
    • Interplay with other culture forms: high, popular, and folk can coexist; in some societies fusion occurs (e.g., Bollywood blending with mythic narratives).
  • Hierarchies of culture and socialisation
    • Experience of socialisation can differ by social group due to culture hierarchies (e.g., private schooling often emphasizes high culture for future elites).
    • Relevance of high culture vs. popular culture varies by group; some prefer popular or folk culture due to everyday relevance.
  • Values
    • Definition: Widely accepted beliefs about what is worthwhile and desirable; value systems shape norms and behaviour.
    • Some values are universal (e.g., value of human life, compassion, family life).
    • Many values are context-specific and change with historical periods and societies.
    • US examples: allegiance to the American way of life; patriotism in assemblies; belief in gun ownership rights (Second Amendment, Pew 2014 finding 52% emphasize gun rights over ownership control).
    • Cross-cultural examples:
    • Francis Loh Kok Wah (2004): freedom, justice, solidarity; loyalty to universal values beyond ethnic or national loyalties; Muslims’ Ummah concept.
    • Jefferson Plantilla (1996): Asian value systems often prioritise the group (family/clan/society) over the individual; Confucian dominance in SE Asia emphasises hierarchy and paternalistic leadership; SE Asian values include hierarchy, strong leadership, duty to extended kin, avoiding bringing shame, etc.
    • Eva Krockow et al. (2018): trust in national value systems; Japan prioritises group over individual due to Shintoism/Buddhism; UK/USA reflect Christian-influenced values of self-help, self-interest, freedom, and personal choice; British/Americans show more self-reliance and less trust than Japanese.
  • Norms
    • Norms are rules of behaviour for specific social situations; they are values in practice.
    • Examples: Western privacy norms (knocking before entering homes, asking to use toilets, not reading others’ mail).
    • Cultural variations: Trinidad & Tobago’s more open, intrusive norms; greeting norms (handshake in the West; bowing in Japan with deeper bows by juniors; eye contact norms in Native American cultures can be interpreted as hostility).
    • Gordan et al. (2013): Arabs vs. Americans show differences in body language; Americans misread Arab non-verbal cues as aggression; eye contact norms vary by culture.
    • Gendered norms: kneeling or curtsying in deference to men/older people among African groups; critique by Byanyima (2018) on harmful practices (curtsying, kneeling, foot binding, genital cutting) that subordinate women.
    • Muslim societies: purdah/parda norms; children defer to parents.
    • Food norms: cultural rules about what, when, where, and how to eat; cannibalism (Korowai in Papua New Guinea) for magical beliefs; diverse dietary practices across the world; breakfast norms in USA vs. India; table manners and utensils.
  • Contemporary issues: Norms about death
    • Caitlin Doughty (2018) ethnographic study of death norms across societies.
    • Western death/funerals: private, solemn, attire in black, quasi-religious; growing secular alternatives that celebrate the life of the deceased.
    • Toraja (Indonesia): corpses mummified and walked with to meet relatives; Tibetsky sky burial: body offered to vultures; Ghanaian coffins shaped to reflect the deceased’s life interests; Mexico’s Day of the Dead – altars, skeleton costumes, sugar skulls.
    • Western attitudes shifting toward more individualized funerals.
  • Roles
    • Roles are culturally expected patterns of behaviour attached to status (e.g., doctor–patient confidentiality).
    • Gender roles: learned behaviours linked to gender expectations.
  • Customs
    • Customs are traditional norms linked to particular social situations and rituals (e.g., Ramadan fasting, Eid-ul-Fitr; Diwali).
  • Social mores and laws
    • Social mores: strong moral norms; violations can provoke moral outrage; some are codified as law (e.g., laws protecting human life).
  • Deviance
    • Deviance = behaviour interpreted as different from norms; can be deviant or criminal when breaking laws.
  • Key terms
    • Socialisation, Society, Identity, Beliefs, Artefacts, High culture, Mass/popular culture, Folk culture, Values, Value system, Relativity of culture, Norms, Secular, Role, Gender role socialisation, Custom, Social mores, Deviance, Law.
  • Summary
    • Culture gives a shared template for beliefs, values, and behaviours.
    • Cultures are relative and vary across societies and historical periods.
    • Social groups within the same society may value different forms of culture (high/folk/popular).
    • Culture is essential to being part of a society; non-conformity may lead to deviance or sanctions.

Unit 2.1.2 The importance of socialisation

  • Introduction:
    • At birth we enter a social world; socialisation is lifelong learning of culture’s norms, mores, language, and customs to live with others and avoid deviance.
  • Primary socialisation and the family
    • The family is the main agent of primary socialisation; aims to introduce cultural continuity and competence (Kuczynski, 2012).
    • What happens in primary socialisation:
    • How to interact and behave; how to think and reason; how to communicate; regulate emotions; manage relationships with family, strangers, and authorities.
    • Motivation: parental love/approval drives conformity; fear of losing love motivates adherence to parental norms (Baumeister, 1986).
    • Piaget’s four stages of development (relevant to socialisation):
    • Sensorimotor (birth–2): learn about self and environment; object permanence begins.
    • Preoperational (2–7): language/memory/imagination develop; play learns norms.
    • Concrete operational (early adolescence): abstract thinking; internalised norms; conscience develops.
    • Formal operational (puberty to adulthood): hypothetical/deductive reasoning; rational judgments; advanced argumentation.
    • Primary socialisation is most effective in Piaget’s second and third stages; resistance may occur in stage four with adolescent moral reasoning.
  • Theories of self and social learning (early sociologists)
    • George Herbert Mead (1934): sense of self via interaction with significant others (parents, grandparents, older siblings).
    • Charles Cooley (1998): looking-glass self – self grows from others’ perceptions of us.
    • Albert Bandura (1963): social learning theory – observation and imitation; role models; empathetic role-play fosters understanding of contextual acceptability; play teaches problem solving and social skills.
    • Gabriel Tarde (1903): emphasis on imitation and role-play; gender role socialisation through parental modelling (Oakley, 1972).
  • Primary socialisation by others
    • Not only parents: when both parents work, childminders/nannies/nurseries and grandparents contribute to socialisation.
  • Secondary socialisation
    • Occurs outside the family; essential agents include the education system, religion, workplace, media.
    • Education system features:
    • Academic curriculum (knowledge/skills for employment).
    • Hidden curriculum: unwritten norms often learned through school organisation (respect for authority, punctuality, aspiration for success, avoidance of deviance).
    • Marxist/feminist critiques: hidden curriculum may undermine working-class/ethnic minority/female students’ progress; Becker’s ideal pupil stereotype.
    • Thompson’s view: school ethos reflects values and norms: emphasis on academic success, equal opportunities, diversity, community involvement, entrepreneurial culture, parental involvement, type of learning (formal vs. independent).
    • Activity: analyse a school brochure/website to identify hidden values and ethos.
    • Critics of hidden curriculum argue that norms may be codified in formal rules; Willis and Corrigan found some working-class students resist hidden curricula.
  • Peer groups and friendship networks as agents of secondary socialisation
    • Peer groups influence adolescent behaviour and attitudes; tension between parental control and desire for independence; peer pressure can lead to deviance or risk-taking.
    • James Cote (2000): peer groups become more important than parents in young adulthood for life knowledge.
  • The workplace as an agent of secondary socialisation
    • Work forms a social glue; it teaches occupational skills, norms, and work discipline; affects dignity, self-worth, identity, and political beliefs.
    • Workplace socialisation depends on job type and conditions; dangerous work may foster collective/solidarity values; harsher conditions can create class divisions.
    • Activity: identify at least four effects of being a worker and illustrate with examples.
  • Religion as an agent of secondary socialisation
    • Historically significant in Western Europe; secularisation rising in Europe but religion remains influential in many non-Western societies.
    • Hervieu-Léger (2000): religion’s socialisation in Europe has declined; in the USA (Bible Belt) religious socialisation remains strong, with literal interpretations of religious texts and strict moral codes.
    • Global context: Religion remains a powerful socialising force in Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism; teaches humanitarianism yet can contribute to conflict or gender oppression critiques.
    • Activity: conduct a social survey to identify sources of moral codes among peers (parents, school, peer groups, religious teachings).
  • The media as agencies of secondary socialisation
    • Media often cited as a dominant socialising agent (Postman, 1985); affects women’s identity via representation; critiques of media stereotypes (Wolf, 1990).
    • Twenge (2014): social media platforms linked to mental health issues among youth (anxiety, narcissism, depression, self-harm).
    • Activity: survey smartphone/media use; compare with Twenge’s conclusions.
  • Key terms
    • Primary socialisation, Conscience, Imitation, Role models, Gender roles, Feral children, Secondary socialisation, Hidden curriculum, Peer group, Ethos, Social capital, Bonding/Bridging, Me/ I (self concepts), Civil society.
  • Summary
    • Primary socialisation (family) imparts cultural norms and values; childhood forms civil society.
    • Socialisation is lifelong; secondary agents (education, religion, media, peer groups, workplace) continue socialisation.
    • Hidden curriculum reflects implicit norms; debates exist about its universality and equity.
    • Media and technology increasingly shape socialisation, with notable implications for mental health and gender norms.

Unit 2.1.3 The nature versus nurture debate

  • Core question: Do biology and genetics (nature) or social environment and culture (nurture) primarily shape behaviour and gender roles?
  • The nature argument (biological/sociobiological):
    • Desmond Morris (1968) and Lionel Tiger & Robin Fox (1971) argue that biology shapes culture and gender roles as fixed, hard-wired traits.
    • Simon Baron-Cohen (2012) suggests female brains are genetically predisposed to empathy while male brains are predisposed to systemizing; supports biological hard-wiring of gender differences.
  • The nurture argument (sociological):
    • Sociologists argue most social behaviour arises from social environment and culture; biology may influence only basic reflexes (e.g., hunger) but not complex cultural behaviours.
    • Cordelia Fine (2011) critiques neuroscience as perpetuating gender inequality by masking stereotypes with scientific language; argues culture has a deep reach into minds and shapes gender perceptions (ripple effect).
    • Sociological view: gender roles are social constructs produced by social processes and institutions; culture and socialisation largely determine observed gendered behaviours.
  • Social construct/construction
    • A belief or set of behaviours produced by society and power relations; appears natural but is socially manufactured.
  • Activity
    • Prompt: "Nature is more important than nurture in the formation of gender roles." Explain this statement and outline an argument against it using sociological material.
  • Key terms
    • Nature vs. nurture debate, Social construct/construction, Agency, Structure, Determinism, Socialization.
  • Summary
    • Sociologists largely reject the idea that nature alone explains social behaviour; nurture and social environment are central.
    • The debate highlights how gender roles are influenced by both biology and culture, but cultural/social factors shape and sometimes override biological possibilities.

Unit 2.2.1 The role of structure and agency in shaping the relationship between the individual and society

  • Structuralist theories (macro, top-down, deterministic)
    • Include functionalism, Marxism, feminism; view social structure as the main determinant of individual behaviour.
    • Society’s institutions and economic/power relations shape actions and life chances; cannot easily be resisted.
  • Interactionist/social action theories (micro, bottom-up)
    • Emphasise agency, free will, and the capacity of individuals and groups to shape social reality.
    • Society, culture, and identity are social constructions arising from everyday interactions; individuals are active agents.
  • Two broad typologies within structuralist thought
    • Consensus theories (e.g., functionalism): societies are organised around shared values and cooperation.
    • Conflict theories (e.g., Marxism, feminism): societies characterised by inequality and conflict between groups.
  • Nature of social reality
    • Social action theory posits that society exists in people’s minds and is constructed through interaction; emphasis on how people interpret social reality.
    • Social constructs can change over time as people adopt new meanings and values.
  • Summary
    • Structural theories see society as constraining individuals; action theories see individuals as capable of change and shape society.
  • Key terms
    • Social structure, Social construction, Agency, Structuralist theories, Macro approaches, Positivist, Consensus theory, Conflict theories, Humanist approach, Voluntarism, Free will, Self (I vs. Me).

Unit 2.2.2 Mechanisms of social control, social order and conformity

  • Social controls overview
    • Socialisation and social control promote conformity and social order; sanctions reinforce or deter deviance.
    • Consent-based control vs coercive control: state seeks to persuade compliance (consent) rather than rely solely on force.
  • Formal vs informal agencies of social control
    • Formal: state-based, coercive, written laws; examples include the military (emergency use), security/intelligence services, police, judiciary; sanctions may be criminal penalties, imprisonment, or other restrictions.
    • Informal: family, peers, media, religion; softer controls through social norms, sanctions like praise or shame.
  • Cost-benefit and social exchange
    • Citizens engage in cost-benefit analysis: compliance yields social capital, protection, and communal benefits; non-compliance risks sanction, harm, or social instability.
    • Control by consent is criticised by Marxists as ideological control of the proletariat; law is framed as equal protection but may function to maintain class power.
  • Education and social control
    • Education acts as both formal and informal control: compulsory schooling; formal rules with sanctions; informal norms (ethos, classroom management, interactions) shape conformity and socialization.
  • The workplace as social control
    • Work enforces discipline, skills, and norms necessary for economic efficiency; sanctions for lateness or underperformance; collective action can be met with managerial responses, including layoffs or relocation.
  • Informal agencies of social control
    • Family: primary site of social control; use of positive sanctions (praise, rewards) and negative sanctions (loss of privileges); corporal punishment in some cultures; child discipline and its societal/legal implications (smacking legality varies).
    • Parrental and family research (Kwok et al., 2013): high rates of physical punishment in some cultures; over 40 countries have banned corporal punishment.
    • Contemporary issues: UNICEF data show around 80% of children globally experience some form of physical punishment; long-term negative outcomes include mental health problems and antisocial behaviour (Durrant & Emson, 2012).
  • Peer group as informal social control
    • Peer groups enforce norms through sanctions like gossip, ridicule, and exclusion; can reinforce conformity or drive subcultural deviance.
    • Spectacular youth subcultures (mods, punks, skinheads, etc.) often rely on visible markers to differentiate from mainstream culture and may be perceived as deviant by adults.
  • The media as informal social control
    • Media shapes norms by portraying certain behaviours as normal or deviant; risk of stereotyping and demonisation; media representations influence public perception and behavior.
    • Positive uses: Filipinos abroad maintaining cultural obligations via social networks; negative: gendered representation and body image pressures.
  • Religion as informal/formal social control
    • Religion can underpin norms through beliefs and practices; in some contexts it is intertwined with state and law (formal control), in others it acts as a cultural influence.
  • Key terms
    • Social pressure, Sanctions (negative/positive), Consensual policing, Cost-benefit analysis, Anarchy, Social exchange, Bonding/Bridging social capital, Mechanical solidarity, Organic solidarity, Anomie.
  • Summary
    • Social control uses formal state mechanisms and informal social pressures to maintain order.
    • Coercive formal controls can provoke resistance; consensual control relies on perceived legitimacy.
    • Informal controls (family, peers, media, religion) can be powerful yet more flexible, shaping everyday conformity.
    • The concepts of social capital (bonding and bridging) explain how networks influence social stability and change.

Unit 2.2.3 The influence of social pressure, sanctions, exchange on social order and expectations

  • Social pressure and sanctions in practice
    • Societal conformity relies on social pressure from peers, family, and institutions; sanctions reinforce expected behaviour.
    • Social exchange framework: individuals weigh benefits of conformity against costs of non-conformity; law is a social contract offering protection in return for compliance.
    • Civility and common good: civil behaviour fosters social bonds and reduces conflict; the idea of social capital reflects productive benefits from networks and trust.
  • Social capital and online networks
    • Bonding social capital: information/resources within a homogeneous group; helps mutual aid and shared identity (e.g., a Facebook group for A Level Sociology students).
    • Bridging social capital: connections across diverse networks; enables broader alliances and social change (e.g., feminist networks linking to other causes).
  • Durkheim and solidarity
    • Mechanical solidarity: in traditional/collective societies, shared values create strong social cohesion; individuals subordinate to the group.
    • Organic solidarity: in modern industrial societies, diverse ideas create weaker community ties; increasing individualism and moral uncertainty (anomie).
    • Contemporary risk: urban anonymity and diversity can erode traditional control mechanisms; norms evolve, potentially increasing deviance unless supported by new forms of social cohesion.
  • The role of social exchange in social order
    • Some societies exhibit strong social exchange where conformity is reinforced by mutual benefits; others rely more on coercive or normative control.
  • Key terms
    • Social pressure, Sanctions, Consensual policing, Cost-benefit analysis, Anarchy, Social exchange, Bonding social capital, Bridging social capital, Mechanical solidarity, Organic solidarity, Anomie.
  • Summary
    • Social control functions through formal and informal mechanisms, with social exchange and civil norms shaping compliance.
    • The balance of bonding and bridging social capital determines how networks support or hinder social change.
    • Durkheim’s concepts explain shifts from traditional to modern forms of social cohesion and potential moral ambiguity in complex societies.

Unit 2.2.4 Explanations of deviance and non-conformity

  • Deviance and non-conformity definitions

    • Deviance: behaviour that violates cultural or social norms; non-conformists challenge convention and can threaten social order.
    • Deviance can range from eccentricity to crime or terrorism when norms are violated.
    • Crime is deviant behaviour that breaks the law.

  • Explanatory approaches to crime and deviance

    • Biological explanations (19th–20th century): Lombroso claimed criminals have distinctive physical features; later theories suggested genetic defects; these views are largely unsupported.
    • Psychological explanations: focus on individual traits like low self-control or personality problems shaped by childhood experiences; see as internal factors.
    • Sociological explanations (macro and micro): crime and deviance result from social forces and structures.
    • Structural macro (e.g., differential access to resources, inequalities, and institutional arrangements) create conditions that lead to deviance, particularly among powerless groups.
    • Micro approaches locate causation in interactions with agents of social control (police, courts) and label theories; powerless groups experience greater criminal labeling and can respond rationally to their circumstances.

  • Summary of explanations

    • Biological explanations lack robust evidence for hard-wired criminality.
    • Psychological explanations emphasize individual traits developed in childhood.
    • Sociological explanations highlight macro- and micro-level social factors as drivers of crime and deviance.

  • End-of-part questions

    • Describe two agencies of formal social control.
    • Using sociological material, give one argument against the view that crime and deviance is a product of social structure.

  • Overall end-of-module reflections

    • Socialisation is the lifelong process by which individuals learn culture; structure vs. agency debates inform how we understand the balance between social forces and personal choice.
    • Agencies of social control (formal and informal) work together to produce conforming behaviour, though resistance and deviance remain inevitable in all societies.
    • Cultural diversity and global perspectives illustrate how values, norms, and social expectations vary, influencing social learning, identity formation, and social order.