Lifestyle choices

Respiratory conditions

Emphysema

—> Causes

  • Cigarette smoking

  • Long-term exposure to industrial pollutants or dusts

  • Familial or genetic disorder (small percentage of cases)

—> Lung Structure

  • Repeated exposure to chemical irritants → inflamed and damaged air passages and air sacs

  • Airways lose elasticity → become thickened and swollen

  • Swelling → narrower air passageways

  • Mucus further narrows air passages and clogs air sacs, reducing function

  • Decreased functional air sacs → gradual decrease in capillaries servicing damaged alveoli

  • Reduced capacity for lungs to extract oxygen from inhaled air → harder breathing

—> Symptoms

  • Breathlessness with exertion, progressing to breathlessness most of the time

  • Susceptibility to chest infections

  • Cough with phlegm

  • Fatigue

  • Barrel-shaped chest (expansion of the ribcage)

  • Cyanosis (blue tinge to the skin) due to lack of oxygen

—> Treatments:

  • Stop smoking immediately (most effective)

  • Avoid air pollutants

  • Respiratory (pulmonary) rehabilitation programs

  • Oxygen treatment (in advanced cases)

  • Medication: anti-inflammatory medication, antibiotics, medicine to widen airways and loosen phlegm

  • Vaccinations against types of respiratory infection

Lung Cancer

—> Causes

  • Smoking

  • Air pollution

  • Radon exposure

  • Exposure to certain chemicals and substances

  • Family history of lung cancer

—> Structure

  • Abnormal cells grow and multiply uncontrollably in the lungs

  • Spreads throughout lungs, lymph nodes, pleura, brain, adrenal glands, liver, and bones

  • Fluid buildup makes it harder for lungs to expand fully during inhalation → shortness of breath

  • Blockage of airways can reduce airflow and make it difficult to breathe, can also lead to lung collapse or infections like pneumonia

  • Damage to delicate tissue in lungs (including alveoli) can reduce surface area available for gas exchange → lower levels of oxygen in the blood and shortness of breath. Can also decrease number of red blood cells

—> Symptoms

  • Shortness of breath

  • Changes to the voice such as hoarseness

  • Chest pain

  • Coughing/spitting up blood

  • Long-lasting chest infection

  • Enlarged fingertips

  • Loss of appetite

  • Weight loss

—> Treatments

Dependent on type of lung cancer, how advanced it is, and general health

  • Surgery: early stages of non-small cell lung cancer

    • lobectomy: a lobe is removed

    • wedge resection: a part of lobe is removed

    • pneumonectomy: a whole lung is removed

  • Radiotherapy: x-rays kill or damage cancer cells, treat locally advanced (stage III) non-small cell lung cancer

  • Thermal ablation: needles inserted into the cancer to destroy cancer cells by heating them, for localized stage I non-small cell lung cancer

  • Chemotherapy: anti-cancer drugs to destroy cancer cells, can be used to treat both small cell and non-small cell lung cancer

Cardiovascular Conditions

Relates to conditions affecting the heart and blood vessels

  • Examples: Coronary heart disease, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral atrial disease, and rheumatic heart disease

Factors, Risks, and Effects

—> Smoking

  • Risk: Increases risk of coronary heart disease

  • Effect: Tobacco smoke absorbed into the bloodstream damages blood vessels, increasing plaque and clot formation, and reduces blood oxygen levels

—> High Blood Pressure

  • Risk: Stroke, coronary heart disease, heart failure, PAD

  • Effect: Force exerted by blood on artery walls. Blood pressure permanently higher than normal

—> Abnormal Blood Lipids

  • Risk: Coronary heart disease, stroke, and PAD

  • Effect: Cholesterol and triglycerides contribute to the development of atherosclerosis

—> Diabetes

  • Risk: Heart attack, stroke, and PAD

  • Effect: Inability of body to produce or effectively use insulin. High sugar levels can damage blood vessels, increasing likelihood of atherosclerosis

—> Overweight/Obesity

  • Risk: Heart attack and stroke

  • Effect: Excess body fat contributes to biomedical risk factors

—> Multiple Risk Factors

  • Risk: Coronary heart disease and stroke

Effect: Increased risk of developing CVD, reduced life expectancy, and death

—> People with heart, stroke and vascular disease

Highlight need for secondary prevention to limit increased severity

—> Physical Activity

  • Improves cardiovascular health by strengthening the heart and improving circulation

  • Regular exercise helps the heart pump more efficiently, lowers blood pressure and cholesterol, and helps manage weight

—> Diet

  • Risk: Heart attack and stroke

  • Effect: Poor diet contributes to high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and buildup of arteries. High saturated and trans fats, cholesterol and sodium can increase LDL, hypertension, and atherosclerosis

—> Alcohol

  • Risk: Heart attack and stroke.

  • Effect: Raises blood pressure and can damage heart muscle. Excessive alcohol intake can lead to cardiomyopathy, weakening the heart muscle and reducing its ability to pump blood effectively

Cholesterol (Lipoproteins)

Types

  • LDL (low-density lipoprotein): "bad" cholesterol

  • HDL (high-density lipoprotein): "good" cholesterol

Dietary Sources

LDL: Influenced by dietary saturated fats. Fatty meats, full-fat dairy, and certain baked goods raise LDL levels, contributing to plaque buildup, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke

HDL: Removes excess cholesterol from arteries and carries it back to the liver

Influenced by genetics and dietary choices. Consuming unsaturated fats can help increase HDL levels while reducing overall cholesterol intake

Narrowing of Blood Vessels

Due to plaque buildup (atherosclerosis)

  • Causes chest pain, shortness of breath, heart attack, stroke, heart failure, and peripheral artery disease

  • Reduced blood flow to organs (especially heart and brain) leads to tissue damage and impaired function

Effects of Atherosclerosis

  • Coronary Artery Disease:

    • Atherosclerosis affects coronary arteries.

    • Causes chest pain, heart attack, and heart failure.

  • Stroke:

    • Atherosclerosis affects arteries in the brain.

    • Can lead to stroke: damage to brain tissue.

  • Peripheral Artery Disease:

    • Atherosclerosis affects arteries in arms/legs.

    • Can cause pain, numbness, and ulcers.

    • Severe cases: lead to tissue death.

  • Aneurysms:

    • Atherosclerosis can weaken artery walls, leading to aneurysms, bulges in the artery wall.

    • If an aneurysm bursts, it can cause life-threatening bleeding.

  • Heart Failure:

    • If the heart muscle is not receiving enough oxygen-rich blood due to narrowed coronary arteries, it can become weak and unable to pump blood effectively.

  • Arrhythmia:

    • Reduced blood flow to the heart can disrupt the heart’s electrical signals, causing irregular heartbeats

Hypertension

Blood pressure consistently above 140/80140/80

  • Stage 1: systolic blood pressure consistently hits 130−139mmHg130-139 mmHg or the diastolic reaches 80−89mmHg80-89 mmHg

  • Stage 2: readings consistently reach 140mmHg140 mmHg or 90mmHg90 mmHg/+

Measurement

Blood pressure monitor: inflatable cuff wrapped around the upper arm and a gauge measuring pressure

Units of mm of mercury (mmHg)

Pairs, systolic value then diastolic value

  • Systolic: pressure when the heart beats – heart muscle is contracting and pumping oxygen-rich blood into the blood vessels.

  • Diastolic: pressure on the blood vessels when the heart muscle relaxes

Effect on Blood Vessels & Cardiac Muscle

  • Chronic high pressure (120/80mmHg120/80 mmHg +) causes hypertensive heart disease

  • Chronic high pressure puts a strain on your heart and makes it harder to pump your blood

  • The heart muscle can get thick and weak, possibly leading to heart failure

  • Walls of blood vessels can also thicken due to high blood pressure, becomes more dangerous when cholesterol collects inside blood vessels → heart attack + stroke risks go up

Myocardial Infarction

Coronary heart disease —> Myocardial infarction (heart attack)

Sequence of Events

Time after onset of symptoms (approx.)

  1. Up to 18 hours: Pale, oedematose muscle; Oedema, neutrophil infiltration, necrosis of myocytes

  2. 24-48 hours:

  3. 3-7 days: Yellow, rubbery center with hemorrhagic border; Obvious necrosis and inflammation: early granulation tissue

  4. 1-3 weeks: Infarcted area paler and thinner than the unaffected ventricle; Granulation tissue then progressive tissue

  5. 3-6 weeks: Silvery scar becoming tough + white; Dense fibrosis

  • Results in a decrease of oxygen, then cell death and necrosis

  • The body eventually initiates repair processes, including inflammation and scar tissue formation

Damage to Health

  • With coronary artery occlusion, the myocardium is deprived of oxygen

  • Prolonged deprivation of oxygen supply to the myocardium can lead to myocardial cell death and necrosis

  • Patients can present with chest discomfort or pressure that can radiate to the neck, jaw, shoulder, or arm

Myocardial infarction involves the heart, leading to heart muscle damage

Stroke impacts the brain, potentially causing neurological deficits