Exam Questions
1. Explain Merton’s typology of social adaptations. Using an example, discuss which element of Merton’s typology is most closely associated with criminality and why.
Robert Merton’s strain theory originates from Emilie Durkheim’s concept that social pressures created by society can evoke deviancy
Emile Durkheim proposed the concept that people experience a general sense of instability and uneasiness when social norms and morals are inconsistent or lacking
He called this feeling “anomie”
Merton’s theory suggested that anomie also occurs when society creates unrealistic expectations of individuals which could not be met through means deemed acceptable
Lower status individuals would be more likely to experience anomic conditions and strain compared to wealthier individuals
Merton argued that deviant or criminal desires arise from social pressure, rather than individuals not being able to control their desires
This theory also focuses on the existence of high-crime areas in lower income neighbourhoods and the general prevalence of crime in the lower class.
This theory is highly associated with a functionalism due to its roots in Emilie Durkheim’s work
Emile Durkheim was one of the most prominent sociological historical figures because he is considered to have mainly contributed to the concept of functionalism
A real-life example of the strain theory where we live (Victoria, BC) might be a stronger presence of drug dealing and trafficking in areas of downtown Victoria that also have a higher population of homeless people.
However, this approach to crime is critiqued for suggesting that deviant behaviour only occurs primarily amongst the lower class, reinforcing negative and harmful stereotypes towards marginalized groups
Key Terms/Concepts from Merton's Typology of Social Adaptations:
Strain Theory and Emilie Durkheim
Anomie
Social Pressure and Deviance
High-crime Areas
Functionalism
Drug-dealing example
Critique
2. Using examples, explain how the process of globalization changed global economic and political systems in the years following the collapse of the Soviet Union. According to our lectures, what was the principle ideological framework of this restructuring?
Globalization describes the worldwide exchange of money, goods, and services, as well as the sociocultural changes that occur with increasing trade and human contact
After the fall of the Soviet Union, the majority of countries saw capitalism and democracy as the only options to adapt to the new forming world
This political approach was called “neoliberalism”
Neoliberalism originated in the US, but quickly gained popularity after the collapse of the Soviet Union
For example, even China, which remained a socialist country, adopted many free-market trades (policies that have minimal intervention in the economy) and policies that promote international trade
Pivotal events throughout this global transition included the “battle of Seattle, the beginning of the “War on Terror”, the invasion of Iraq, the “Great Recession”, and Covid-19
3. Using materials from lectures and the text, answer the following: What is an echo chamber, and how can Harry Frankfurt's essay On Bullshit help us to understand the dangers of echo chambers in the modern social media landscape?
Blogs are a type of media that take on the form of online diaries
They voice an individual’s opinion on pretty much any topic of choice (events, personal experiences. etc.)
The term “echo chamber” was originally a critique of blogs and blog-readers
Echo chambers emerge when people start only reading and engaging with media that confirms their prior beliefs and biases
They prevent people from exposing themselves to different opinions and they encourage the spread and acceptance of misinformation (fake news)
Harry Frankfurt’s essay “On Bullshit” explains the differences between truth-tellers, liars, and bullshitters
Truth-tellers are people that know the truth and are committed to spreading it
Liars are also people that know the truth, but attempt to hide it for the purpose of protecting their personal interests; this may involve the suppression of others
Lastly, bullshitters simply don’t care about the truth and only focus on spreading whatever they want to
Frankfurt’s essay helps us to understand modern echo chambers by establishing the direct relationship between fake news and bullshitters
For example, many fake news outlets are demonstrations of bullshitters because they may or may not know the truth, but are indifferent to it since the purpose of their media is to profit off of engagement by eliciting their audience or to validating people’s prior opinions
Additionally, echo chambers can also be associated with conspiracy theorists and their confirmation bias
Conspiracy theorists often only reinforce their own opinions through fake news and misinformation
Key Terms/Concepts from Echo Chambers and Frankfurt's Essay:
Blogs
Echo chamber
Harry Frankfurt
Truth-tellers
Liars
Bullshitters
Fake news example
Conspiracy theorists
4. Define and describe the following: subcultures & countercultures. Using a specific example, illustrate how that group’s material and nonmaterial culture sets them apart from mainstream society.
Culture is a system of values, beliefs, norms, and expressive symbols (material and cultural objects that express values, norms, etc.) shared by groups of people, transmitted over time
Material culture is things that are a part of our constructed environment
Nonmaterial culture is non-physical concepts like values, beliefs, expectations and behaviours
Subcultures are groups within a population whose values, norms, folkways, or mores set them apart from the dominant culture
Countercultures are a type of subculture that strongly opposes the widely held cultural patterns of the larger population
An example of a subculture is “furries”, which are a group of individuals that take the identity of an animal
A material part of this subculture is the accessories such as tails and ears that er worn by members of this group
The nonmaterial parts include their sense of community and belonging in a society that doesn’t necessarily accept them and role-playing
Key terms/concepts:
Culture
Material culture
Non-material culture
Subcultures
Countercultures
Subculture example
5. What are the “agents of socialization,” according to sociologists? How do they help to socialize us? How might an understanding of the agents of socialization help us to better understand the sociological position in the “nature versus nurture” debate?
The concept of agents of socialization are the means by which society conditions an individual into becoming a functional member of itself
Society plays an important role in shaping an individual
The four principle agents of socialization are families, peers, education, and mass media
Families are arguably the most crucial agent for children because they influence an individual from the earliest age
The family influences a child’s sense of identity, self- esteem, personality, values, and attitudes
Peer influence dramatically increases during adolescence because it is a period of transition, where individuals distance themselves from their parents and seek validation and acceptance from their peers
The education agent socializes individuals by evaluating them based on actions and establishing new roles and cultural values
Lastly, mass media (media produced for mass consumption) plays a more subtle part in socialization
It influences perceptions of the world
To illustrate how these agents might influence an individual, imagine the socialization of a child
A child who befriends kids who play basketball might be encouraged by their friends to join the team (peer influence)
In school, a child learns the value of respect for others and is conditioned to obey teachers and authority figures (education influence)
Another concept that explains personality development is the “nature vs. nurture” idea, which has two approaches
The first one is the biological approach, which suggests that personality has to do with genetics (“nature’).
The other concept instead suggests that socialization forms and conditions our feelings, beliefs, and behaviours over the course of our lives (“nurture”)
The agents of socialization aligns with the “nurture” approach because they highlights the influential factors in our lives
The “nurture” position also relates to other concepts that argue that people are influenced by parts of society, such as strain theory, conflict theory, and anomie